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■*■■? «r.<-c«r*r •

A HISTORY

OF

THE BIRDS OF EUROPE,

INCLUDING ALL THE SPECIES INHABITING THE

WESTERN PAL^ARCTIC REGION.

BY

H. E. DRESSER, F.L.S., F.Z.S., etc.

VOLUME VI.

LONDON:

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR,

6 TENTEEDEN STEEET, HANOYER SQUARE, W.

1871-1881.

FLAM MAM.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
BED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

I

mo

AirDiT
iff i

Ccfw i

LETTERPRESS TO YOL. VI.

Genera and Species. *>afce ° f Iss ™4in Pages in Pinal

r publication. rart article. paging.

123. Pernis „ 1880 80 1 1

368. Pernis apivorus 1875 41, 42 10 3-12

124. Falco 1880 80 1 13

369. Falco gyrfalco 1875 43, 44 6 15-20

370. Falco candicans . . • 1876 51,52 4 21-24

371. Falco islandus 1876 53 6 25-30

372. Falco peregrinus 1876 47, 48 12 31-42

373. Falco minor 1876 50 3 43-45

374. Falco barbarus 1876 51, 52 3 47-49

375. Falco feldeggi 1879 73, 74 7 51-57

376. Falco sacer 1879 73, 74 9 59-67

377. Falco subbuteo 1871 4 14 69-82

378. Falco gesalon 1875 38 9 83-91

379. Falco vespertinus 1871 1 9 93-101

380. Falco eleonora 1873 16 9 103-111

381. Falco tinnunculus 1871 2 12 113-124

382. Falco cenchris 1871 3 11 125-135

125. Pandion 1880 80 1 137

383. Pandion haliaetus 1876 49 10 139-148

126. Phalacrocorax 1880 80 1 149

384. Pbalacrocorax carbo 1879 73, 74 11 151-161

385. Pbalacrocorax graculus 1879 73, 74 6 163-168

386. Phalacrocorax africanus 1876 54 4 169-172

387. Phalacrocorax pygmanis 1876 51,52 5 173-177

127. Sula 1880 80 1 179

388. Sulabassana 1880 77-79 9 181-189

128. Pelecanus 1880 80 1 191

389. Pelecanus onocrotalus 1879 75,76 5 193-197

390. Pelecanus crispus 1879 75, 76 6 199-204

IV

„ id- Date of
Genera and Species. publication.

129. Ardba 1880

391. Ardea cinerea 1875

392. Ardea purpurea 1875

393. Ardea melauocephala 1871

394. Ardea alba 1880

395. Ardea garzetta • . . 1880

396. Ardea bubulcus ....... 1879

397. Ardea ralloides 1879

130. Akdetta 1880

398. Ardetta minuta 1880

131. Nycticoeax 1880

399. Nycticorax griseus 1879

132. Botaurus 1880

400. Botaurus stellaris 1875

401. Botaurus lentiginosus 1878

133. Ciconia 1880

402. Ciconia alba 1873

403. Ciconia nigra 1873

134. Platalea 1880

404. Platalea leucorodia 1873

135. Ibis 1880

405. Ibis comata 1880

136. Plegadis 1880

406. Plegadis falcinellus ...... 1878

137. Ph(enicoptekus 1880

407. Phcenicopterus roseus . . . . . 1879

138. Anser . 1880

408. Anser cinereus 1878

409. Anser segetum 1879

410. Anser brachyrhynchus ..... 1878

411. Anser albifrons 1878

412. Anser erythropus 1879

139. Bernicla 1880

413. Bernicla brenta 1877

414. Bernicla leucopsis 1878

415. Bernicla ruficollis 1876

Issued in

Pages in

Pinal

Part

article.

paging.

80

1

205

41,42

9

207-215

43,44

7

217-223

3

5

225-229

77-79

8

231-238

77-79

6

239-244

75,76

6

245-250

75,76

5

251-255

80

1

257

77-79

7

259, 265

80

1

267

75,76

9

269-277

80

1

279

38

7

281-287

71,72

5

289-293

80

1

295

19

12

297-308

23,24

8

309-316

80

1

317

23,24

8

319-326

80

1

327

77-79

o
O

329-331

80

1

333

71,72

6

335-340

80

1

341

75,76

9

343-351

80

1

353

71,72

7

355-361

75,76

6

363-368

71,72

6

369-374

65,66

7

375-381

75,76

4

383-386

80

1

387

63,64

7

389-395

65,66

6

397-402

51,52

4

403-406

V

ri „ j o„ • „ Date of Issued in Pages in Final

(jenera and Species. ,,. .. .„ , •?. ,

r publication. Part article. paging.

140. Chen ....... 1880 80 1 407

416. Chen albatus . . . . . ■ . . . 1873 19 3 409-411

417. Chen hyperboreus . . . ... 1873 19 3 413-415

141. Cygnus 1880 80 1 417

418. Cygnus olor . 1880 77-79 9 419-427

419. Cygnus immutabilis 1880 77-79 4 429-432

420. Cygnus musicus 1880 77-79 8 433-440

421. Cygnus bewicki 1880 77-79 8 441-448

142. Tadorna 1880 80 1 449

422. Tadorna cornuta 1878 67, 68 10 451-460

423. Tadorna casarca 1875 41,42 5 461-465

143. Anas 1880 80 1 467

424. Anas boschas ........ 1873 17 9 469-477

425. Anas angustirostris ...... 1872 13 5 479-483

144. Chaulelasmus 1880 80 1 485

426. Chaulelasmus streperus 1873 18 8 487-494

145. Spatula 1880 80 1 495

427. Spatula clypeata 1873 .21 8 497-504

146. Querquedula 1880 80 1 505

428. Querquedula crecca 1871 1 5 507-511

429. Querquedula circia . . . . . . 1871 5 8 513-520

430. Querquedula formosa ..... 1871 1 3 521-523

431. Querquedula falcata 1871 2 4 525-528

147. Dafila 1880 80 1 529

432. Dafila acuta 1873 19 7 531-537

148. Mareca 1880 80 1 539

433. Mareca penelope 1876 47, 48 7 541-547

149. Fuligula 1880 80 1 549

434. Fuligula ferina 1878 67,68 8 551-558

435. Fuligula rufina . . ' 1873 22 6 559-564

436. Fuligula marila 1878 65,66 7 565-571

437. Fuligula cristata 1879 73,74 6 573-578

150. Ntroca 1880 80 1 579

438. Nyroca ferruginea. ...... 1872 14 5 581-585

VI

~ , „ Date of

Genera and Species. publication.

151. Clangula 1880

439. Clangula albeola 1877

440. Clangula glaucion 1875

441. Clangula islandica 1878

152. Cosmonetta 1880

442. Cosmonetta histrionica 1877

153. Haeelda 1880

443. Harelda glacialis 1875

154. Somateria 1880

444. Somateria mollissima 1871

445. Somateria spectabilis 1877

446. Somateria stelleri 1871

155. CEdemia ]880

447. CEdemia fusca 1877

448. CEdemia nigra 1877

449. CEdemia perspicillata 1877

156. Erismatura 1880

450. Erismatura leucoeephala .... 1878

157. Mergus 1880

451. Mergus merganser 1875

452. Mergus serrator 1874

453. Mergus albellus 1874

Issued in
Part

80

Pages in
article.

1

Final
paging.

587

61,62

5

589-593

46

7

595-601

65,66

3

603-605

80

1

607

59,60

6

609-614

80

1

615

45

9

617-625

80

1

627

4

14

629-642

59,60

6

643-648

3

6

649-654

80

1

655

61, 62

5

657-661

61,62

6

663-668

61,62

6

669-674

80

1

675

65, 66

5

677-681

80

1

683

43,44

7

685-691

34

6

693-698

31

10

699-708

PLATES TO VOL. VI.

-vr t.1 i. Issued

No. Plates. ^ Part

364. Pernis apivorus juv 40

365. Pernis apivorus ad 41, 42

366. Pernis apivorus : fig. 1, juv., var.;

fig. 2, djuv 41,42

367. Falco gyrfalco . . '.. . . . .43,44

368. Falco candicans ad. . . . . . 54

369. Falco candicans ad. et juv. . . 51, 52

370. Falco islandus juv. ..... 53

371. Falco islandus ad 53

372. Falco peregrinus 46

373. Falco minor 50

374. Falco barbarus 51, 52

375. Falco feldeggi 71, 72

376. Falco sacer ad. et juv 73, 74

377. Falco sacer sen 73, 74

378. Falco subbuteo juv. et pull. . . 7

379. Falco subbuteo ad 4

380. Falco sesalon ad. [Falco regulus

on Plate) 38

381. Falco sesalon ? sen. et juv. ... 38

382. Falco vespertinus 1

383. Falco eleonorse 16

384. Falco tinnunculus 2

385. Falco cenchris 3

386. Pandion haliaetus 49

387. Pandion haliaetus juv. et pull. . 50

388. Pbalacrocorax carbo. .... 73,74

389. Phalacrocorax graculus .... 73, 74

390. Phalacrocorax africanus ... 54

391. Phalacrocorax pygmaeus . . . 51, 52

392. Sula bassana 77-79

393. Pelecanus onocrotalus .... 75, 76

394. Pelecanus crispus 75, 76

No. Plates. Iss * ed f

in Part

395. Ardea cinerea 41, 42

396. Ardea purpurea 43, 44

397. Ardea melanocephala (Ardea atri-

collis on Plate) 3

398. Ardea alba. 77-79

399. Ardea garzetta 77-79

400. Fig. 1, Ardea bubulcus; fig. 2,

A. ralloides 75, 76

401. Ardetta minuta (Ardeola minuta

on Plate) 77-79

402. Nycticorax griseus 75, 76

403. Botaurus stellaris 38

404. Botaurus lentiginosus .... 73, 74

405. Ciconia alba 19

406. Ciconia nigra 23, 24

407. Platalea leucorodia 23, 24

408. Ibis comata . .... . . . 77-79

409. Plegadis falcinellus 71, 72

410. Phcenicopterus roseus . . . .75, 76

411. Anser cinereus 71, 72

412. Anser segetum 75, 76

413. Anser brachyrhynchus . .' . .71,72

414. Anser albifrons 63, 64

415. Fig. 1, Bernicla leucopsis ; fig. 2,

B. brenta . '. 61, 62

416. Bernicla ruficollis 51, 52

417. Pig. 1, Chen hyperboreus ; fig. 2,

C. albatus 19

418. Cygnus olor 77-79

419. Figs. 1, 2, Cygnus immutabilis ;

fig. 3, C. bewicki ; fig. 4, C.
rausicus; figs. 5, 6, C. olor:
heads only 77-79

Vlll

No Plates IsSUed

J\o. flutes. in part

420. Tadorna cornuta 67, 68

421. Tadoma casarca 41, 42

422. Anas boschas 17

423. Anas angustirostris 13

424. Chaulelasmus streperus (Anas

strepera on Plate) 18

425. Spatula clypeata 21

426. Querquedula crecca 1

427. Querquedula circia 5

428. Querquedula formosa .... 1

429. Querquedula falcata 2

430. Dafila acuta $ et pull 20

431. Dafila acuta 6 ad. sest. et hiem. . 19

432. Mareca penelope 47, 48

433. Mareca penelope autumn. . . . 47, 48

434. Fuligula ferina 65, 66

435. Fuligula rufina 22

436. Fuligula marila 63, 64

437. Fuligula cristata 73, 74

No. Plates. . -r, ,

in rare

438. Nyroca ferruginea 14

439. Clangula albeola 63, 64

440. Clangula glaucion 46

441. Clangula islandica 65, 66

442. Cosmonetta histrionica (Histri-

onicus torquatus on Plate) . . 59, 60

443. Harelda glacialis 2 et 6 juv. . . 47,48

444. Harelda glacialis ad 45

445. Somateria mollissima .... 4

446. Somateria spectabilis .... 59, 60

447. Somateria stelleri 3

448. CEdemiafusca 61,62

449. CEdemia nigra 63, 64

450. CEdemia perspicillata . . . . 61, 62

451. Erismatura leucocephala . . . 63, 64

452. Mergus merganser 43, 44

453. Mergus serrator 34

454. Mergus albellus ? et pull. . . .35, 36

455. Mergus albellus 6 ad 31

Genus PERNIS.

Accvpiter apud Brisson, Orn. i. p. 410 (1760).

Falco apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 130 (1766).

Buteo apud Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. iv. p. 479 (1816).

Aquila apud Koch, Baier. Zool. i. p. 115 (1816).

Pernis, Cuvier, Regne Aniin. i. p. 322 (1817).

Pteroclialinus apud Gloger, fide Sharpe, Cat. Accipitr. Brit. Mus. p. 343 (1874).

The Honey-Buzzards, of which three species are known, inhabit the Palaearctic, Ethiopian, and
Oriental Regions, one species only being found in the Western Palaearctic Region. They are
somewhat heavy and slow in their movements, and quite as destitute of courage as the common
Buzzard: thus they do not pursue and catch birds and mammals, but feed on reptiles and
insects, especially the latter; and they are said also to plunder other birds' nests of their
contents, both eggs and young birds. They feed with avidity on the larvae of wasps and bees,
and will dig out the nests and pick the grubs out, devouring also the honey.

They breed rather late in the season, either making use of a deserted nest or else con-
structing one for themselves, and invariably garnish it with green leaves. Their eggs are
roundish, and usually very richly coloured, being so closely blotched on a yellowish-brown
ground with reddish brown or fox-red as to appear almost entirely of those colours.

As a rule, they are silent birds, only occasionally uttering a shrill cry as they circle over
head at a considerable altitude.

Pernis apivorus, the type of the genus, has the bill rather weak, decurved from the base,
cere large, cutting-edge of the upper mandible nearly straight ; nostrils oblong, oblique, lores
covered with small scale-like feathers ; wings long and broad, the first quill shorter than the
sixth, the second about equal to the fifth, the third and fourth longest ; tail long, nearly even ;
tarsus short, feathered on the upper part and reticulated on the lower half; toes moderately
strong, claws strong, slightly curved, acute.

An American species, the only representative of the Nearctic and Neotropical genus
Manoides, Elanoides furcatus (L.), has been inserted in the British list ; but it seems to me
that it is rather premature to include it, and until I can examine an undoubted British-killed
example I shall continue to doubt its occurrence within the limits of the Western Palaearctic
Region. According to Professor Newton (in Yarr. Brit. B. i. pp. 103-105) one was recorded by
the late Dr. Walker as having occurred at Ballachulish in 1772, and a second example is said
by the late Mr. Fothergill to have been caught on the 6th September 1805, near Hawes, in
Wensleydale, Yorkshire, but it subsequently escaped. Four more occurrences are on record,
but they rest on insufficient evidence.

123

364

J.G.Keulemans del.

Minlem Bros, imp .

HONEY-BUZZARD.

IMMATURE.

HONEY BUZZARD.

PERNIS AP1VORUS

366

HONEY BUZZARD.

I YOUNG VARIETY. 2 <f IMMATURE.

PEENIS APIVORUS.

(HONEY-BUZZARD.)

Accipiter buteo apivorus, Briss. Orn. i. p. 410 (1760).

Falco apivorus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 130 (1766).

La Bondree, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. i. p. 208 (1770).

Falco dubius, Sparrm. Mus. Carls, i. pi. 26 (1786).

Falco incertus, Lath. Ind. Orn. i. p. 32 (1790)

Le Tachard, Levaill. Ois. d'Afr. i. pi. 19 (1799).

Falco tachardus, Daud. Traite d'Orn. ii. p. 164 (1800, ex Lev.).

Falco poliorynchos, Bechst. Orn. Taschenb. i. p. 19, pis.' 3, 4, 5 (1802).

Accipiter lacertarius, Pall. Zoogr. Rosso-As. i. p. 359 (1811).

Buteo tachardus (Daud.), Vieill. Nouv. Diet. iv. p. 479 (1816).

Buteo apivorus (L.), Vieill. torn. cit. p. 479 (1816).

Aquila variabilis, Koch, Syst. Baier. Zool. p. 115 (1816).

Pernis, Cuv. (Falco apivorus, Linn.), Regne Anim. p. 322 (1817).

Pernis communis, Less. Traite d'Orn. p. 75 (1831).

Pernis apium, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 46 (1831).

Pernis vesparum, C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 47 (1831).

Pernis apivora, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 14 (1855).

Pernis platyura, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Pernis apivorus major, A. E. Brehm, Verz. Samml. C. L. Brehm, p. i (1866).

Pernis apivorus planiceps, A. E. Brehm, ut supra (1866).

Pernis apivorus apium, A. E. Brehm, ut supra (1866).

Pernis apivorus vesparum, A. E. Brehm, ut supra (1866).

Pernis tachardus, G. R. Gray, Hand-list B. i. p. 26 (1869).

Buse bondree, French ; Aguila de Moros, Spanish ; Falco pecchiajuolo, Italian ; Kucciarda,
Maltese ; Khabas el grain, Moorish ; Wespenbussard, Bienenfalke, German ; Wespendief,
Dutch ; Ilvepsevaage, Danish ; Hvepsehog, Norwegian ; Bivrdk, Swedish ; Mehildishaukka,
Finnish ; MishelovJca-Pchelojadnaya, Russian.

Figures notabiles.

Bechst. Orn. Taschenb. pis. 3, 4, 5 ; D'Aubenton, PI. Enl. 420 ; Werner, Atlas, Rapaces,
pi. 26 ; Kjaerb. Orn. Dan. taf. v. ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 5. figs. 6, 7 ; Naumann, Vog.
Deutschl. taf. 35, 36 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 29. figs. 2, 3 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 16 ;
id. B. of G. Brit. i. pi. 9 ; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pis. 37, 38, 39 ; Borkh. Teutsch. Orn.
part xiv. pis. 1, 2, 3, 4 ; Susemihl, Vog. Eur. taf. 35.

6 ad. pileo et capitis lateribus cinereis, nucha bruuneo immixto : corpore supra saturate fusco : alis fuscis ,

2h

remigibus nigro-fusco terminatis : cauda grisescenti-brunnea fasciis quatuor saturate fascis transfas-
ciatjl : corpore subtus albo, pectoris lateribus fusco notatis et hypochondriis vix eodem colore notatis :
alis subtus grisescenti-albidis fusco fasciatis : rostro nigricanti-corneo, cera nigricante, ad basiu flavida :
iride et pedibus flavis, unguibus brunnescenti-nigris.

2 ad. pileo et nucha, saturate chocolatino-fuscis, plumis ad basiu albis et pallide rufesceute bruuneo margi-
natis, loris et regione ophthalmica brunneseenti-cinereis, regione parotica rufescenti-brunnea plumis
nigro fusco striatis : corpore supra saturate chocolatino-fusco, dorso vix purpurasceute metallico
uitente : alis et cauda ut in mare picturatis sed saturatioribus : gula albicanti-cervina fusco striata :
corpore subtus saturate fusco, albo et albicante cervino notato.

c? jun. adulto similis, sed corpore subtus conspicue rufescente brunneo notato, pectore fere toto brunneo.

Juv. chocolatino-fuscus, supra saturatior, capitis colli et gutturis plumis centraliter nigro-fusco striatis, corpore
imo subtus pallidiore : remigibus nigro fuscis, secundariis vix pallidioribus et pallide brunneo apicatis :
cauda sordide brunnea indistincte fasciata, versus apicem saturatiore et albido apicata.

Very old Male (Djurgarden, Stockholm, 3rd July). Crown and sides of tbe bead pale asby blue, becoming
brownish on the nape, upper parts dark earth-brown, slightly tinged with grey on the back; wings
brown, all the quills broadly terminated with dark (almost blackish) brown ; under surface of the wing
greyish white, barred with dark brown; tail greyish brown, with four broad dark brown bands, the
intervening spaces being indistinctly and narrowly barred with lighter brown ; underparts white ; sides
of the breast blotched with brown, and one or two brown markings on the flanks ; bill blackish horn,
cere blackish, except that at the base it is yellowish, and the edge of the gape is also yellow; iris
yellow; legs yellow; claws brownish black. Total length about 20 inches, culmen T35, wing 15 '8,
tail ll'O, tarsus 2 - 0.

Adult Male (Altenkirchen) . Resembles the above, but has the underparts tolerably thickly marked with
brown, the breast being most strongly coloured.

Young Male (Sarepta, September). Upper parts chocolate-brown, almost uniform in colour, except that on
the head and neck there is a central blackish brown stripe along every feather ; quills blackish brown ;
secondaries rather lighter, and with indistinct light tips ; tail dull brown, with indistinct darker bars,
darker towards the tip, and finally tipped with white ; entire underparts chocolate-brown, darker on the
throat and breast and lighter towards the lower abdomen ; feathers on the sides of the face, throat, and
breast with blackish brown central lines, the rest of the underparts being uniform in colour.

Young Male (Horning, Norfolk, September 1841) . Head and neck white, slightly marked on the crown,
nape, sides of the head, round the eye, and auriculars with brown ; upper parts dark brown, varied with
white, the quills being slightly tipped with white ; tail as in the adult ; underparts white, the feathers
on the breast marked with narrow central shaft-stripes.

Adult Female (Altenkirchen, Rhenish Prussia, September) . Crown and nape deep brown, the feathers being
white at the base and edged with light reddish brown ; lores and region round the eye brownish ashy
grey ; auriculars reddish brown, striped with dark brown ; upper parts deep brown, with a chocolate
tinge, the back glossed with metallic purple ; wings and tail as in the male, but a little darker ; throat
bufly white, striped with deep brown ; rest of the underparts white, so broadly barred with deep brown
as to give the appearance of being dark brown marked here and there with white or bufly white.

Culmen 1/4 inch, wing 16 - 2, tail lTO, tarsus 2*1. Thus it will be seen that the sexes differ very little
in size.

Young Female (near Berlin). Head and neck with the tips of the feathers only dark brown, margined with
light reddish brown, the rest being white ; back, wings, and tail as in the adult bird, but lighter •
underparts white, the feathers being broadly marked with dark brown at the tip; chin pure white,
with only a few faint brownish markings.

Obs. Like all the Buzzards the present species also differs considerably in plumage, the differences being,
so far as I can gather, not only those of age and sex, but to a large extent individual variations.
Naumann (Vog. Deutschl. pp. 568-572) enters very carefully into this question; and it may there-
fore be well to give a short review of what he says, as probably no one is more competent to give
a reliable opinion than this well-known and careful observer. The old male he describes from a
specimen which closely resembles the old male above described by me, and therefore I need not recapi-
tulate what he says; his description of the younger male also closely agrees with mine; bat the
young male in first plumage he describes as follows : — " Head and neck yellowish white ; nape, cheeks,
and space round the eye slightly marked with brown ; underparts white, with light-brown shaft-stripes,
and clouded with brown on the crop ; lower part of the hind neck spotted with white and brown ;
upper parts dark brown, with white edges to the feathers ; wings and tail darker than in the adult bird ;
cere ochre-yellow ; iris greyish brown." This bird therefore agrees tolerably closely with the specimen
from the Norwich Museum, which I have figured. I can scarcely consider this to be the normal dress
of the young male; for I have seen most in the dark uniform brown plumage above described, and
moreover this white plumage is so rarely met with ; indeed I have never seen more than two examples —
one in the Norwich Museum, and one in the collection of Mr. C. Sachse, of Altenkirchen, which he
would not part with, but of which Herr von Riesenthal kindly made a careful painting for me. The
female in the first year's plumage Naumann describes as follows : — " Cere yellow ; forehead, cheeks,
and throat brownish white ; underparts pale rusty brown ; upper parts dark brown, and the dark bands
and markings on the tail and wings but slightly developed" — thus differing very little from my
description of the young male ; and I have seen specimens, marked as females, which exactly resembled
these males, but were slightly larger in size. The very old female described by Naumann agrees most
closely with my description ; and he adds that middle-aged females are scarcely distinguishable from
males in plumage.

The old male above described must be an exceedingly old bird, as almost all I have seen, shot in the
vicinity of the nest, have the underparts marked more or less strongly with reddish brown, the breast
being almost uniform brown. The ashy blue on the head in the old bird fades soon after death ; yet in
the old male in my collection this colour is very distinct and clear, though the bird has been stuffed so
long. Usually the old males have the underparts white, rather more marked with colour than in this
specimen; but that this is not always the case is clearly to be seen by the fact that a male in the
collection of Mr. E. Schiitt, the " Bezirks-Forster," at Staufen, in Baden, is very differently coloured.
In this specimen the entire upper parts are sooty blackish brown, underparts blackish, the feathers
being, however, Avkite at the base ; but this colour only shows through very slightly on the abdomen
and thighs ; chin, upper throat, and fore part of the head to behind the eyes ashy blue ; wings and tail
as in the adult male above described by me ; but the former have a greyish tinge.

The inference I deduce from the examination of the various examples is, that in immature, and also, to some
extent, in mature dress the present species is subjjsct to a tendency towards albinism, as, for instance,
in the pale whitish plumage worn by the specimen in the Norwich Museum, and towards melanism, as
in the specimen in Mr. Schiitt's collection above described; but, as a rule, the immature birds vary

2 II 2

more than the old ones. In both sexes the ashy greyish tinge on the head (that is, the clear bluish
ashy head in the male, and the ashy brown on the lores and region round the eye in the female) appears
to indicate full maturity. The moult appears to take place in July and August, as specimens shot late
in August or in September are in very clean and fresh plumage.

The range of the Honey-Buzzard, the only representative of this distinct group we have in
Europe, appears to be confined nearly to the Western Palsearctic Region, where, during the
summer season, it inhabits the northern and central districts, and, so soon as the cold weather
begins to set in, migrates southwards, being found in Africa during the winter. A very gipsy
amongst birds, it appears to be found almost everywhere in suitable localities, though nowhere
very numerous.

In Great Britain it used formerly to breed in several localities ; but of late years its eggs
have been so eagerly sought after that it has become exceedingly rare. Professor Newton, in
the new edition of Yarrell's ' British Birds,' refers to several recorded instances of its having
been found nesting in England previous to 1841, and adds that since then it has been met with
breeding in Northumberland, Shropshire, Staffordshire, and Northamptonshire, as well as the
New Forest, where it certainly bred within the last few years, and may yet be met with unless
exterminated by over-zealous collectors and by gamekeepers, who, knowing the high prices
paid for its eggs, use every endeavour to procure them. Mr. J. Gatcombe informs me that
it still visits Devonshire occasionally. The last he saw was obtained about two years ago ; but
it was too much decayed to be preserved, as, not knowing its rarity, the bird-stuffer had let it
get too stale. Speaking of its occurrence in Somersetshire, Mr. Cecil Smith writes as follows : —
" It can only be considered a rare, irregular straggler to this county. I know of only two having
been killed about here, one of the two by Mr. Esdaile's keeper, at Cothelston, about the 8th of
July, 1873 ; it is a young bird, probably of the year before. The other, a still younger bird, is in
the collection of the late Mr. Popham, of Bagborough, which is close under the Quantock hills.
I did not know for some time that this was really a Somerset specimen, or, indeed, even a
British one, till a friend wrote me a short time ago that Mr. Popham had himself caught it in a
trap baited with a piece of wasp's nest." In Scotland, according to Mr. Robert Gray, it has been
more frequently met with on the east than on the western side. He records many instances of
its occurrence, chiefly during the autumn ; but two, he says, were shot, curiously enough, in the
winter season, in the months of January and February, and it has twice been recorded as having
nested in Aberdeenshire. Thompson speaks of it as being a very rare summer visitant to Ireland,
and he only refers to four instances of its occurrence there.

In Scandinavia it is generally distributed in the central and southern districts, and ranges
far north, especially on the Swedish side. Mr. Collett says that in the south-eastern lowlands of
Norway it is at times very numerous, but does not appear to range above the Dovre. In the
southern-coast districts, as, for instance, in Smaalehnene and near the Christiania fjord, it is very
common in some seasons. In Christiansands Stift it is commonly found up to Nedenses, but is
only sparingly scattered along the west coast, and has been met with at Bergen and on the
Nordfjord. In the interior it has been found breeding in Valders, the Gudbrandsdale, and
Osterdale. In Sweden it is generally distributed throughout the country in suitable localities as
far north as the Lapland frontier ; for Nilson says that Mr. von Seth took its eggs on the Lulea

river, near the arctic circle. In Finland it likewise ranges far north ; for I have received its eggs
from the neighbourhood of Uleaborg, and Wolley procured them on the borders of Finland,
some distance within the polar circle. It is, however, much more common in the southern than
in the northern districts of that country. Mr. Sabanaeff informs me that it breeds in the
Government of Jaroslaf, but is rare there. He gives its northern limit as about 58° N. lat., but
states that Kessler met with it on the west side of Lake Onega. Mr. Goebel obtained it near
Archangel ; but Meves only observed it once at Schlusselburg. Respecting its range in Central
Russia, Mr. Sabanaeff further states that it breeds in the Government of Moscow, though,
curiously enough, it is said not to remain in the Government of Kazan during the summer
season. Lemann met with it in the Bashkir country (near Schadrinsk) ; and it breeds, according
to Sabanaeff s own experience, in the Central Ural. Eversmann records it as inhabiting the
Kirghis steppes ; but Bogdanoff found it very rare along the banks of the Volga. It also bi'eeds
in the Governments of Charkoff, Kieff, and Voronege. I have no data respecting its occurrence
in the Baltic Provinces and Poland, where it doubtless breeds in suitable localities; but
throughout Northern Germany it is met with here and there, though Borggreve states it is,
generally speaking, rather rare than otherwise, but is most numerous in Thuringia, and is met
with breeding as high as 2000 feet above the sea-level in the mountains. I have eggs from
Pomerania and from various parts of Rhenish Prussia, and was told that it breeds in the Black
Forest and in various portions of the districts skirting the Rhine. In Denmark, Mr. Benzon
informs me, it appears annually in large flocks on the spring and autumn passage, and occa-
sionally a pair or two remain to breed, but its nest is seldom found. He once obtained its eggs
from the Thoreby Forest, on Laaland, taken on the 13th June. 1868. In Holland it has on
several occasions, Mr. Labouchere informs me, been found breeding near the German frontier;
and Mr. Van Wickevoort Crommelin writes to me that it is a rare visitant in the autumn, and
occasionally breeds on the dunes in the north of that country. It is said to be rare in Belgium,
and more so in Luxemburg, but breeds sparingly in the wooded districts of the Ardennes and
the Moselle. In France it is rare in the northern provinces, and, with the exception of a few
which breed near the Belgian frontier, it is principally observed in the autumn during passage ;
but in the south and south-eastern districts, especially in Provence, Anjou, Auvergne, and the
Hautes Pyrenees, it is said to be common. Professor Barboza du Bocage does not include it in
his list of the birds of Portugal ; but it is met with in Spain in the spring on passage north-
ward, and Colonel Irby remarks that the migration extends over some twenty days, being at its
climax about the 8th May, and the latest flight he saw was on the 15th of that month. Neither
this gentleman nor Mr. Saunders, however, has met with it breeding in that country. In Savoy
it is very rare, but occurs during passage, and has been known to remain and breed there ; nor
is it numerous in Italy, where it also occurs on passage. Docleiiein thinks that it breeds in
wooded portions of the Apennines above Modena; and it is, he says, numerous in Sicily during
the spring passage ; but it has not been recorded from Sardinia. Mr. C. A. Wright writes (Ibis,
1864, p. 45) that in Malta it " passes annually in March, April, and May, and again in September
and October, and is not uncommon. Flocks of six to a dozen are sometimes seen migrating
together." Lord Lilford speaks of it as being exceedingly rare in the Ionian Islands; and it
was not recorded from Greece previous to two specimens having been obtained in Attica in

8

6

August and September, and sent to the Athens Museum, as stated by Dr. Kriiper. In Southern
Germany, however, it is met with here and there during the summer. Seidensacher obtained its
eggs near Cilli, in Styria ; and the Bitter von Tschusi-Schmidhofen informs me that a few pairs
breed in the Riesengebirge, but in Moravia it has become rare. In Upper and Lower Austria,
Hungary, and Silesia it is, he says, not unfrequently met with, but is rare in Salzburg and
Siebenbiirgen ; and Dr. Anton Fritsch speaks of it as breeding tolerably commonly in Bohemia.
According to Mr. C. Farman (Ibis, 1869, p. 203) it was found breeding near Kialdery by Mr. C.
McVean, who took the young and shot the old bird ; and on the Bosphorus large numbers pass
and repass during the two seasons of passage. It appears, however, to be rare in Southern
Eussia, where, Eversmann says, it is found both in the hills and on the plains, but does not
occur in the Government of Kazan. I have a specimen from Sarepta, on the Volga. Dr.
Kriiper met with it near Smyrna, in Asia Minor ; and Canon Tristram speaks of it (Ibis, 1865,
p. 255) as being rather scarce in Palestine, but undoubtedly a constant resident. He observed
it in November and December near the coast, and saw one which had been shot in the autumn
near Beyrout. Mr. Bartlett shot one near Nazareth in April. In North-east Africa it is rare ;
and though both Hedenborg and Ruppell record it from Egypt, it was not found there by
Von Heuglin, and Captain Shelley looks upon it as a mere straggler to that country. On the
west side of the Continent it is also found, and cannot be very rare, as large flocks pass and
repass annually over the Straits of Gibraltar. Loche, however, only records the occurrence of
two examples in Algeria. Favier, however, speaks of it as being numerous during passage near
Tangier, at which seasons only is it seen there. Pel obtained it in Fantee ; Mr. Ussher procured
a specimen from Denkera; and Dr. A. Eeichenow writes (J. f. O. 1874, p. 385) that it is, he
believes, a resident in the Lower Cameroons, as it has also been killed there in summer.
Mr. Layard did not obtain it in the Cape colony ; but it is generally believed that the " Tachard "
of Levaillant is founded on the present species. Mr. Ayres, however, twice procured it in Natal ;
and in the British Museum is a specimen from Madagascar.

To the eastward it has been stated to occur as far as Japan ; but I am very doubtful as to
whether Pernis ptilorhynchus, which in immature dress is almost undistinguishable from the
present species, has not been mistaken for it. Pernis apivorus was not met with in Persia by
Mr. Blanford, and certainly does not occur in India. SevertzofF, who states that it is met with
rarely in Turkestan on passage, adds that the only specimen he saw was remarkably large in
size, differing therein greatly from ordinary European examples.

In its habits the present species is a true Buzzard, being cowardly, even more so than the
common Buzzard, and heavy and slow in its movements ; consequently it is unable to catch other
birds, or any but the weaker or smaller mammals, and its food consists almost entirely of insects,
mice, frogs, worms, lizards, &c., but more especially of the larvae of bees and wasps, from which
predilection it derives its name. It certainly cannot, as a rule, be looked on as an injurious bird
of prey, except that, as mentioned by Naumann, it is a most adroit and successful plunderer of
other birds' nests ; and the manner in which they follow and mob a Honey-Buzzard during the
breeding-season shows how greatly they fear him on account of their young. Too lazy and
clumsy to catch old birds, unless they are ill or crippled, it will sometimes kill and devour a
young bird or even a young hare ; but, so far as I can gather, these lapses from the proper path

9

are only exceptional, and it is not a bird that should be persecuted by a game-preserver on account
of any mischief it may do amongst the game. As above stated it is especially fond of plundering
the nests of wasps and wild bees, and will dig the comb out and devour the larvae with voracity.
That honey is also found in its stomach is certain : whether it eats the honey from choice or
only with the larvae I cannot say ; but one which I obtained was so full of honey that before I
skinned it I hung it up, head downwards, to let the honey drain off so as to avoid soiling the
skin, and on dissection I found a lot of comb, but only a few larva?, in the stomach. It
will frequently walk about amongst the grass in search of insects and worms, which latter
it frequently eats ; Collett remarks that one was shot on a carcass, and, on dissection, it
proved to have been eating maggots so greedily that its stomach was distended as much as
possible. During the autumn it is said to eat berries ; and Naumann states that he has found,
in the spring of the year, the stomachs of Honey-Buzzards filled solely with buds and vegetable
remains.

In its flight it somewhat resembles the Buzzard, but is more slightly built, has a longer tail,
and may usually be easily distinguished by these differences, and by the markings of the under-
parts. It is shy, and not easy to approach within range, except when incubating, when it will
sometimes sit so close as not to leave the nest until the climber has mounted into the tree, or
even nearly reached the bough on which the nest is placed. It appears fond of sitting for hours
together in the same place, on a tree or a large stone, patiently waiting for its prey, too lazy,
probably, to hunt for it ; but even then it is very difficult to stalk and shoot one. I have not
often met with it when collecting, but have found its nest in Germany and Sweden, and have
then had an opportunity of watching the birds for some time. As a rule it appears to be a
silent bird ; and I have only heard it utter a shrill cry resembling the syllables Jcee, kee, kee,
uttered very quickly and continuously whilst the bird was circling overhead. It arrives from the
south later than any other of the birds of prey, and commences nidification when the young of
the Hawks and Buzzards are hatched — that is, late in May or in June ; and sometimes the eggs
are not deposited until late in June. It either builds a fresh nest for itself or else makes use of
a deserted Buzzard's or Kite's nest, which it repairs and, before the eggs are deposited, lines and
garnishes with fresh green leaves, which are regularly replaced as they fade. I have seen a nest
so garnished with fresh beech twigs as to make it appear as if the bird intended to make an
arbour to shade its nest; and judging from the freshness of these, they must have been changed
daily. So soon as the nest is garnished with these green leaves one may look out for the eggs ;
but I have known the nest to be well furnished with leaves and foliage and have started
the female from the nest, and no egg has been deposited for at least a week subsequently.
Passler and Badeker say that, as a rule, the present species prefers the groves on the plains for
the purpose of nidification ; but I have not found this to be the case, as all the nests I have
seen were in non-evergreen trees in the hills. Mr. Sachse also informs me that it breeds near
Altenkirchen in the hills ; and Mr. Schutt pointed out to me a place in the mountain behind
Staufen, in Baden, where the Honey-Buzzard has bred, and which must be fully a thousand feet
above the level of the sea.

Several field-naturalists have called my attention to the fact that the present species will
breed in the same locality for several years in succession, and will then suddenly, and without

8

any apparent cause, disappear, and not return again until several years have elapsed. I cannot
find any cause to account for this ; but it may possibly be owing to the scarcity of its favourite
food that it leaves the locality. Owing to the late season when its eggs are deposited, the trees
being then in full leaf, it is very difficult to discover its nest; and hence it may often breed
regularly in a locality where its nest is seldom found. Mr. Carl Sachse, of Altenkirchen, in
Rhenish Prussia, writing to me respecting its breeding-habits, says, "here the bird is not rare
in mountains six to nine hundred feet above the level of the sea ; but their late breeding-time
makes it difficult to find the nest, as the oaks and beeches are then in full foliage. The nest is
placed both in the dense deep forest and in the groves in the fields, generally close to the trunk
of the tree, and from twenty to fifty feet from the ground, and is generally not very difficult to
get at. Here the nest is always placed in an oak or beech tree of from one to three feet
diameter, and generally a deserted nest of a Buzzard or Kite. A fortnight, or even longer,
before the eggs are deposited the birds bring fresh leaves (almost always those of the beech) to
the nest, and do this daily until the eggs are half incubated ; indeed I found fresh leaves in a
nest on the 11th of May, 1867, in which I only found a couple of fresh eggs on the 2nd of June.
The two eggs are deposited after an interval of six or eight days, as I have had an opportunity
of observing in three instances. On the 23rd of June, 1869, I took out of a nest one egg, and
on the 29th of June the second one, quite fresh ; on the 28th of May, 1862, one egg was in the
nest, and the second was not deposited until the 6th of June. In the third instance I did not
note down all the particulars at the time; but I believe it was in 1857, and I am certain that the
two eggs were deposited after an interval of six days. The bird sits very close, and I have
several times observed it, when the climber had almost reached the bough on which the nest
was placed, slip quietly off the nest and run along the bough, and then fly off. On the 6th of
June, 1 870, I struck the tree, in which a nest was placed about twenty feet from the ground,
repeatedly ; but the bird remained on it, and only when we had hammered away violently at the
tree for some time did it rise and stand on the edge of the nest, shake itself, look astonished,
and then sit down quietly again on the eggs as if nothing had happened. When the climber
had almost reached the nest, the bird left, but soon returned, and perched on the next tree so
close that I could easily have shot it. After the eggs (which were fresh) were taken and packed
up, the bird flew off and circled for some time round the nest — at a great height, however. Both
male and female incubate ; and the sitting bird, when on the nest, is regularly fed by the other
with wasps' nests in which the grubs are.

"On the 14th of June, 1868, I shot a male as it left the nest; and the incubation-spot
showed that the bird had sat no little time on the eggs, which were eight days incubated.
This bird left the nest only when the climber had reached and grasped the bough on which the
nest was, and which was about fifty feet from the ground. On the same day I took another nest
about eight miles distant from the one above referred to, which was placed in the main fork of
an oak tree about forty feet from the ground. Out of this nest I took two eggs of the common
Buzzard on the 26th April ; and when fourteen days subsequently I climbed to the nest I found it
tenanted by a Honey-Buzzard, lined with fresh beech leaves, and in it lay a half-eaten Blackbird.

" Only one fresh egg was in the nest, and the other one was on the ground close to the foot
of the tree ; indeed I almost trod on it, and only noticed it as I bent down before throwing the

11

rope over a bough. I may here remark that I have often found eggs on the ground in the forest,
viz. of Buteo vulgaris, Falco subbuteo (in thickets), Strix flammea, Cypselus apus, and often
Sturnus vulgaris.

" When I had almost reached the nest the bird flew off, but when about fifty paces distant
rose into the air and was soon joined by its mate, and both birds watched me take the egg. In
this nest were also several wasps' nests and fresh beech leaves. In every instance when I took
the eggs I could easily have shot the bird ; but I let them go, so as to be able to secure the eggs
the following year. On the 9th of August, 1863, I took two young birds nearly fledged, which
I presented to the Zoological Gardens at Cologne. When there, the Director, Mr. Bodinus,
assured me that their favourite food was white bread and rolls. Unfortunately they died, from
not being taken in early enough in the winter.

"During ten years I have taken here the eggs out of about thirty nests, and always found
two, only in one instance three, which latter I sent to Seidensacher. I generally took them
about the 6th of June ; but they are frequently not deposited before the middle of June, and
once only was one laid in May. The interior of the egg is sometimes greenish, sometimes whitish
yellow. Seidensacher states that he has only found the latter to be the case ; but I have six
which are green. The Honey-Buzzard arrives here in April, and leaves us in September, some-
times in October." And in another letter he subsequently writes to me as follows : — •" In a nest
which had been tenanted by Milvus regalis the previous year I found on the 21st of May, 1871,
green leaves, and saw the pair of Honey-Buzzards sailing above it. On the 28th of May the nest
was well garnished with green leaves, and as I commenced to climb the tree the female came
and sat on her nest, not leaving it until I was within a metre of it. It contained no egg then ;
and on the 10th of June, when I again examined it, I found the foliage withered, and only one
small piece of green in the nest, together with an earth-worm, but still no egg. On the 28th of
June I took two eggs out of the nest, one of which was about one day, and the other four or
five days incubated. One of these eggs was much longer and narrower than the other. The
nest was built in the main fork of a beech tree, about a foot in diameter, and was about twenty-
eight feet from the ground.

" The Honey-Buzzards used often to carry green leaves and wasps' nests to another nest ; but
no eggs were ever deposited there. The Honey-Buzzard, Kestrel, and Hobby often use a nest as
a sort of storehouse, and one finds in them half-eaten birds, mice, earthworms, &c. &c."

As a rule, I believe that the present species deposits two or three eggs; I have more
frequently received the former than the latter number ; but Mr. Benzon informs me that it
sometimes lays as many as four. Judging from those I have seen, the eggs of this species vary
much, but are, as a rule, very richly coloured. I possess twenty, from Germany, Norway,
Sweden, and Finland, all of which, with one exception, are very closely blotched with deep
reddish brown on a yellowish brown or rich fox-red ground ; several are so dark as to look
almost uniform mahogany brown ; and two are marbled with reddish brown on a rich fox-red
ground. One egg only, from Norway, is white, closely blotched with deep umber-brown at one
end, and otherwise sparingly marked with large blotches of deep brown. In size these eggs
vary from 2 inches by lf^ to 2^- by If J inch. Mr. Benzon gives the sizes of eggs in his
collection as being from 49 by 39 to 51 by 44 millimetres, the single specimen from Denmark

2i

«. • --

12

10

being the smallest. He says that he possesses eggs which somewhat resemble those of the
Peregrine, but can be distinguished by the greenish colour of the inside of the egg. This, how-
ever, I may add, is not a sure guide ; for I possess two undoubted eggs of the present species
which have the inside of the shell yellow.

The specimens figured are as follows : — on the first Plate a very old male from Sweden, and
a very old female which had been known to breed near Altenkirchen for several years, and which
was shot when I was there ; on the second Plate is a young male from Sarepta in the dark choco-
late dress, and a young female from near Berlin ; and on the third Plate are the white variety
from the Norwich Museum, and an ordinary adult male, with the underparts marked with brown,
from Altenkirchen. Full particulars as to when and where these specimens were obtained are
given below.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, 3 ad. Djurgarden, Stockholm, July 3rd, 1850 (A. Fahnsson). b, ? juv. Near Berlin (A. Griinack) c,juv.
Belgium {A. Dubois) . d, $ ad. Altenkirchen, Rhenish Prussia, September 1873 (H. E. D.) . e, 3 ad.
Altenkirchen, 1873 (Von Reisentkal). f,juv. Saxony (H. F. Moschler). g, 3 juv. Sarepta, Russia, Sep-
tember 1871 (Moschler). h, 6 juv. Smyrna, November 3rd, 1871 (Dr. Kriiper).

E Mus. C. Sachse.
a, J ad., b, 3 juv.. Altenkirchen (C. Sachse).

E Mus. E. Scliiitt.
a, s ad. Pmllendorf, Baden, June 7th, 1872. b, 3 ad., var. Pfullendorf, June 20th, 1872.

E Mus. Norv.
#> 3? juv. Horning, Norfolk, September 1841 (W. F. Fisher).

E. Mus. Howard Saunders,
a. 3 ad. Malaga, September 20th, 1872.

Genus FALCO.
Accipiter apud Brisson, Orn. i. p. 321 (1760).
Falco, Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 124 (1766).
Hierofalco apud Cuvier, Regne Anim. i. p. 312 (1817).
Hypotriorchis apud Boie, Isis, 1826, p. 976.
Cerchneis, apud Boie, ut supra.
Erythropus apud C. L. Brehm, Isis, 1828, p. 1270.
Mgypms apud Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 29 (1829).
Pannychistes apud Kaup, op. cit. p. 57 (1829).
Aesalon apud Kaup, op. cit. p. 40 (1829).
Dendrofalco apud G. R. Gray, List, of Gen. of B. p. 3 (1840).
Tichornis apud Kaup, Classif. Saugeth. u. Vog. p. 108 (1844).
Poecilornis apud Kaup, Contrib. to Orn. 1850, p. 53.
Gennaia apud Bonaparte, Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1854, p. 536.
Pnigohierax apud Cabanis, Journ. f. Orn. 1872, p. 156.
Idthofalco apud Blasius, fide R. B. Sharpe, Cat. Accipitr. p. 374 (1874).

The Falcons are essentially the most noble of all the Raptores. Compact and powerful in
structure, and endowed with great power of wing, as well as high courage, they are specially
formed for a predatory life ; and all obtain their prey by capturing it while flying, or pouncing on
it from above when quartering the ground on the wing. By many authors the genus Falco has
been considerably subdivided, our European Falcons having been separated into three genera,
Falco, Hierofalco, and Cerchneis; but it appears to me unadvisable to separate these groups
generically.

The Falcons are distributed throughout all the zoogeographical regions into which the world
has been divided, except that they are not represented in Oceania. In the Western Pahearctic
Region fourteen species are found, the distribution of which is given in the following separate
articles. These birds inhabit both the plains and woods as well as cultivated places — in fact
any localities where they can best find food. They are extremely strong in flight, rapacious
and bold, and feed on the smaller mammals and birds, which they pursue on the wing and strike
down ; and it is the birds belonging to this genus which are, as a rule, utilized in falconry.
Some of the species (Falco eleonorce and Falco vespertinus for instance) feed chiefly (these two,
indeed, almost exclusively) on insects, whereas several of the other species prey only on the
smaller mammals and birds. They breed on trees and on rocks, some species even nesting on
the ground, and either construct their own nest of sticks and twigs lined with wool and moss,
or else take possession of and repair any suitable nest which may have been deserted by its-
owner. Some species, however, Falco cenchris for instance, nest in holes, constructing either
a slight nest or else depositing their eggs without any thing being placed under them. The
eggs of the Falcons vary a good deal, some being much more richly marked than others. They
are, as a rule, blotched and marked with deep orange, rufous, or deep reddish brown, on a dull
white, reddish white, or dull buffy orange ground.

Falco peregrinus, the type of the genus, has the bill short, strong, curved from the base,
upper mandible with a median festoon and an anterior angular process, the tip strongly hooked
and sharp ; lower mandible with the tip truncate, and a rounded notch on each side near the tip ;
wings long and pointed, the second quill longest, the first and third being nearly equal ; tail long,
broad, rounded ; legs strong, tarsus rather short, covered with scales, of which the anterior ones
are somewhat hexagonal ; toes long, scutellate above ; claws long, curved, acute, flat beneath.

124

14

367

J G-Keulemans' <3el-

Mintem Bros imp -

JERFALCON

FALCO GYRFALCO.

15

FALCO GYRFALCO.

(JER FALCON.)

Accipiter gyrfalco, Briss. Orn. i. p. 370, pi. xxx. fig. 2 (1760).

IFalco lanarius, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 129 (1766).

Falco gyrfalco, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 130 (1766).

Gerfault de Norwege, D'Aubenton, PL Enl. pi. 462 (1770).

Le Gerfaut, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. i. p. 239, pi. xiii. (1770).

IFalco sacer, J. Forster, Phil. Trans, lxii. p. 382 (1772).

I.American Sacre, Speckled Partridge-Hawk, Pennant, Arct. Zool. ii. p. 202. no. 96 (1785).

Falco sacer, var. j3, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 273 (1788).

XFalco cinereus, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 267 (1788).

Le Tiercelet pagard du Gerfaut, Schl. & Verst. Traite Fauc. pi. 7 (1853).

Hierofalco gyrfalco (L), C. L. Brehm, J. f. O. 1853, p. 266.

Falco gyrofalco, Thien. Abbild. Vogeleiern, Taf. Ii. figs. 3 a-d (1854).

Norway Falcon, Salvin & Brocl. Falconry, pi. xv. (1855).

Falco norvegicus, Tristr. Ibis, 1859, p. 24.

Falco gyrfalco norwegicus, Schl. Mus. P.-B. Falcones, p. 12 (1862).

Falco (Hierofalco) gyrfalco (L.), var. sacer, Forst., Ridgw. N.-Am. Birds, iii. p. 115 (1874).

Jer Falcon, Norway Falcon, English ; Gierfalk, German ; Biefsakfalle, Lapp ; Jagtfalk,
Norwegian and Swedish ; Krechet, Russian.

Figurm notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PI. Enl. 462 ; Bechst. Orn. Taschenb. taf. 9 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 391.
fig. 1 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 26. fig. 1 ; Gould. B. of G. Brit. i. pi. 16 ; Schlegel,
Vog. Nederl. pis. 4, 5 ; Salvin & Brod. Falconry, 2nd edit. pis. xiv., xv. ; Schleg. &
Verster, I. c.

6 ad. supra saturate schistaceo-cinereo, pallide cinereo et cinerascente cano fasciato : pileo saturatiore fere
immaculato nigricanti-schistaceo, plumis nonnullis rhachibus nigris : stria, indistincta, supra oculum ad
nucham ducta, : nucha albido notata : uropygio et supracaudalibus ceerulescenti-cinereis, scliistaceo
fasciatis : remigibus fuscis, extus cinereo notatis et in pogonio interno cinereo-albis fusco fasciatis :
cauda fusca vix schistaceo lavata, et sordide canescente cinereo fasciata et albido apicata, : capitis lateri-
bus albidis nigro-fusco notatis, regione suboculari et regione parotica summa cum linea a basi man-
dibulse fuscis schistaceo lavatis : corpore subtus albo, pectore et corpore imo maculis longitudinalibus
ovalibus notatis : hypochondriis, subcaudalibus et subalaribus fusco- schistaceo fasciatis : rostro plum-
bescenti-corneo, versus apicem nigro : cera, marginibus palpebrarum et pedibus flavis, unguibus nigris :
iride saturate fusca.

$ ad. mari similis sed major.

2x

16

Juv. pileo, capitis lateribus et nucha, albis nigro-fusco striatis : corpore supra saturate fusco, plumis sordide
albido et fulvido marginatis : uropygio pallidiore et vix cinereo tincto : remigibus ut in adulto sed
brunnescentioribus et apicibus albicante cervino marginatis : cauda fusca albo apicata et albicante
cervino fasciata, his fasciis brunneo punctatis : corpore subtus albo, gutture anguste fusco striata., et
corpore imo subtus striis latioribus saturate fuscis notato : cera et pedibus plumbeis : iride nigro-fusca.

Adult Female (East Finmark) . Upper parts very dark slaty grey, barred with light blue-grey, or almost
white in some parts ; crown darker, unmarked with lighter colour, but the feathers have blackish shaft-
stripes ; an indistinct buffy white stripe passes from behind the eye to the nape, the latter being marked
with buffy white ; hind neck rather more marked with white than the rest of the upper parts ; rump
and upper tail-coverts clear blue-grey, barred with slaty blue ; quills dark brown, on the outer web
mottled with grey, the inner web above the emargination being dark brown on the inner part near the
shaft, the rest being greyish white barred with dark brown; tail brown with a slaty tinge, closely
barred with blue-grey or mouse-grey, these light bars being freckled with darker grey ; extreme tip of
tail white ; sides of the face white, marked with black, the space below the eye, the upper line of the
ear-coverts, and a broad moustachial stripe from the base of the lower mandible dark slaty brown;
underparts white, the upper throat and chin nearly unmarked, the rest of the underparts sparingly
marked with drop-shaped long stripes ; flanks, under tail-coverts, and under wing-coverts barred with
dark slaty brown ; bill blue, becoming black towards the tip ; cere, edge of the eyelid, and feet yellow ;
iris nearly black; claws black. Total length about 2i inches, culmen 1*5, wing 15 - 0, tail 1O0,
tarsus 3'0.

Adult Male. Similar to the female, but much less. I do not possess an example so adult as the female
above described; and the oldest specimen I have, though it has attained the full dress on the back,
rump, tail, and underparts, has the head nearly as light as in the young bird, and the wings are more
tinged with brown than in the fully adult bird. This specimen measures — -total length about 21 inches,
culmen 1*35, wing 13"6, tail 8 - 5, tarsus 2"4.

Young Male (Wadso, East Finmark) . Crown, sides of the head, and nape buffy white, striped with dark
brown, the forehead being white, with very narrow dark pencillings; upper parts dark brown, the
feathers margined with buffy white, and here and there slightly marked with buff or fulvous buff;
rump rather lighter brown, similarly marked, and with a faint blue-grey tinge ; quills as in the adult,
but browner and with the terminal portion margined with buffy white ; tail dark brown, tipped with
white, and barred with buffy white, these bars being slightly freckled with brown; underparts white, on
the throat narrowly, and on the rest of the underparts tolerably closely and broadly striped with dark
brown ; the dark patch on the side of the head and the moustachial stripe are indicated by being more
darkly marked, the intervening parts of the side of the head being whiter; bdl horn-blue, darker
towards the tip ; cere bluish ; feet lead-blue, claws black.

The range of this, the so-called " Norwegian " or true Jer Falcon, in contradistinction to the
Iceland and Greenland species, is somewhat extensive, as it inhabits Northern Scandinavia and
North Russia, and thence is found right across Northern Asia into Arctic America. In Europe,
however, its range is comparatively restricted ; for it is only met with as a resident in the
northern portion of Scandinavia and Russia, stragglers being occasionally seen in more
southern latitudes during the winter. It has never been observed in England ; and I find no
record of its occurrence in France, beyond the statement made by Messrs. Degland and Gerbe
to the effect that young examples only occur accidentally in that country. It is stated to occur

17

in Holland; but Messrs. Salvin and Brodrick say that, so far as they can ascertain, only two
specimens have been taken, at the huts at Valkensvaard. Professor Blasius writes (Naum. Yog.
Deutschl. xiii. pt. ii. p. 23) that North Germany, as a rule, is only visited by young examples of
this species in the winter season; and the same gentleman states (Ibis, 1862, p. 65) that it has
been found on Heligoland. In Northern Scandinavia, as above stated, it is resident ; and
Mr. Robert Collett states that " it breeds commonly on the Norwegian fells above the Polar
circle, and is most commonly found round the Varanger fiord and along the more elevated fells
of Nordland and Trondhjems stifts, and on the Dovre and Langtfjelds and their branch ranges
down to the Thelemarksfjelds in Christiansand stift. It visits the lowlands sparingly in the
autumn and winter, and has been on several occasions shot in the southern coastal districts, as at
Christiania, in Smaalehnene on the Skiensfjord, at Christiansand, and is said to be tolerably
common on the Jsederen and at Stavanger and Bergen. Formerly the most of the Jer Falcons
were taken in Finmark, in Romsdals Lehn, on the Dovre, on the Osterdalsfjelds, and on the
Thelemarksfjelds." On the Swedish side it is found in Lapland, and, according to Professor
Sundevall, occurs sometimes in Norrland and but rarely in Southern Sweden, whereas in Finland
it is only found in the high north. Professor Malmgren believes that a Falcon which was seen
on the eastern side of the entrance to Wyde Bay, in Spitzbergen, cannot have been any thing but
the present species ; and Von Heuglin writes (Ibis, 1872, p. 61) as follows : — " We observed, both
in Matthew's Strait and also in Kostin Shar, two large Falcons, which are certainly to be referred
to the above-named species;" and Mr. Gillett says (Ibis, 1870, p. 304), "I saw two large
Falcons, which I imagine were of the Norwegian form, flying over the ship by Vaigat's Island, at
the entrance of the Kara Sea; both were in immature plumage; but I could not obtain a
specimen." So far as I can gather, the present species extends right across Asia into North
America, from which latter country I have seen undoubted examples. It certainly is found in
Northern Russia, in the vicinity of Archangel; and the various travellers who have visited
Novaya Zemlya speak of a large Falcon, which probably should be referred to this species.
Mr. Sabanaeff informs me that it breeds in the Moscow Government, but has only been observed
in that of Jaroslaf during passage. It also breeds in the district of Dorogobugesk, in the
Smolensk Government. In the Ural it is, he says, rarer than the Peregrine and the Saker, but
is found on the western side and in the northern parts of the Perm Ural. How far to the south
in Russia it occurs I cannot with certainty say; but it doubtless does not straggle far to the
south. In Siberia it was certainly met with by Von Middendorff, who says that all he saw wore
a dark plumage, thus showing that the species observed by him was the true Jer Falcon. He
writes (Sib. Reise, p. 127) as follows : — " In the Taimyr country I first observed this Falcon,
near the Nowaja river, on the 20th May, when it was probably passing northwards towards its
breeding-haunts ; for when we approached the Arctic Ocean in August I again saw it frequently,
and met with it as far as Baer Island, in 75|° N. lat." Dr. Radde obtained a young male from
the Apfelgebirge, which, from his description, appears to have been the young of the present
species, though he compares it to a dark young bird of the true Greenland Falcon, and to
the bird referred to by Pallas under the name of Falco lanarius. He writes (Reis. im Siid. v.
Ost-Sib. p. 99) that it is found, though rarely, throughout the country he visited, excepting the
Mongolian elevated steppes, but is rare, and only young birds were observed during the winter

2x2

18

season. Late in September it was observed in tolerable numbers in the Bureja Mountains, and
lived chiefly on squirrels, but was so shy that he could not obtain a specimen. There is, how-
ever, no doubt that the specimen referred to by Von Schrenck as having been obtained by
Maack at Nertschinsk, in March 1855, is referable to Falco candicans, as he gives a careful and
detailed description of it. Pallas also states that whereas the Jer Falcon which is found in the
Ural and Altai is dark in colour, and not unlike a young Peregrine, the bird found in Eastern
Siberia and Kamtschatka is white, like the species found in Iceland.

The present species also inhabits North America, where, according to Mr. Ridgway (I. c),
it is found in the " interior regions of Arctic America, Anderson-River, McKLenzie, Yukon, and
Severn-River regions, breeding abundantly in the former district." I am indebted to Professor
Spencer F. Baird for an opportunity of comparing American examples with those in my collec-
tion from Scandinavia ; and it may not be out of place to reproduce some notes respecting these
examples which I read at a Meeting of the Zoological Society in March last. Four specimens
were forwarded to me for examination by Professor Baird, particulars as to locality &c. being
given below : —

Specimen a, an adult female, compared with a female of F. gyrfalco from Quickjock,
Lapland, agrees so closely that I cannot trace the least difference either in coloration, measure-
ments, or any thing else ; and as the two skins are made up much alike, I could not well tell
them apart, except by the labels. Mr. Blanford, who is working with me, is also unable to
discern any difference.

Specimen b, a male, evidently adult, agrees closely with an old male from Lapland in my
collection, but has the head darker and less streaked with white, and the back is also bluer than
that of the Lapland specimen. Doubtless the American bird is the older of the two.

Specimen c, also a male, agrees tolerably well with my male bird from Lapland, but has
the head darker.

Specimen d, a female, agrees very closely with a female from Lapland.

Mr. Ridgway evidently lacked the materials which have been at my disposal, or he would
doubtless have arrived at precisely the same conclusion as I have done. Indeed, he writes
(I. c.) as follows respecting the female bird from Fort Anderson : — " Upon comparing this
specimen with the figures of a pair of var. gyrfalco by Wolf in Newton's ' Ootheca Wolleyana,'
I can discover no difference at all," thus showing that he only needed the necessary materials to
convince himself of the identity of the American and European Jer Falcons. As the American
authors call this bird Falco sacer, Forst., I made careful research as to whether the species
described by Forster in 1772 really is the Jer Falcon; and the result of my search may be
summed up as follows. Forster writes (Phil. Trans, lxii. p. 382, abridged edition, p. 331): —
" Speckled Partridge-Hawk at Hudson's Bay. The name is derived from its feeding on the
birds of the Grous tribe, commonly called Partridges, at Hudson's Bay. Its irides are yellow
and the legs blue. It comes nearest the Sacre of Brisson, Buffon, and Belon ; but Buffon says
it has black eyes, which is very indistinct, for the irides are black in none of the Falcons,
and in few other birds; and the pupil, if he means that, is black in all birds. It is said by
Belon to come from Tartary and Russia, and is therefore probably a northern bird. It is very
voracious and bold, catching Partridges out of a covey which the Europeans are driving into

19

their nests (! nets). It breeds in April and May. Its young are ready to fly in the middle of
June. Its nests, as those of all other Falcons, are built in unfrequented places ; therefore the
author of the account from Severn River could not ascertain how many eggs it lays ; however,
the Indians told him it commonly laid two. It never migrates, and weighs 2 J pounds; its
length is 22 inches, its breadth 3 feet."

From this it will be seen that it is most difficult to determine with any degree of certainty
what the species is to which Forster refers. The yellow iris would point to an immature
Goshawk ; but that bird has not blue legs, and, doubtless, Forster would not have mistaken the
Goshawk for the Saker. On the whole the probability is that the bird in question really was a
Jer Falcon ; but there is no certainty at all on the subject, and I think that on the whole the
best plan to follow is to disregard Forster's reference altogether, especially as the true Saker
Falcon, which is the Sacre of Brisson, was named Falco sacer by Gmelin in 1788, sixteen years
subsequently to when Forster mistook the bird obtained by him, whatever it was, for Brisson's
Sacre, a species which does not occur in North America.

Of the habits of this Falcon but little is on record. It frequents, as above stated, rocky
and wooded districts, and feeds on squirrels, small mammals, and birds, especially Ptarmigan
&c. It is a swift, powerful bird, very strong on the wing, and is the most esteemed amongst the
Falcons employed in falconry. Buffon, who remarks that the Norwegian bird differs from the
Iceland species, says that it is held in greater esteem by the falconers than F. islandus, being
more couragous, active, and docile. Mr. Wolley, the well-known oologist, appears to be the
first naturalist who has given full details of the nidification of the present species from personal
observation ; and Professor Newton has published the fullest particulars relative to the taking
of many nests by Mr. Wolley and his collectors in the ' Ootheca Wolleyana,' to which I may
refer such of my readers as wish for further details than those I glean from Mr. Wolley's
notes. This gentleman describes (Ooth. Woll. p. 88) the taking of a nest of the Jer Falcon by
himself as follows : — " We had not long left the track on the river when a Falcon flew up from
the rock where the nest was supposed to be, and soon afterwards, turning back, settled on the
trunk of a dead tree, once or twice uttering a cry. I now knew there was a nest, and in a few
minutes more I saw it, looking very large, and with a black space about it, as though it were in
the mouth of a little cave in the face of the rock. This was a joyful moment ; but not so much
so as when the hen bird flew off with somewhat cramped wings, and settled on a little stump
some thirty yards from the nest. I would not let Ludwig shoot. We were ascending the hill,
and might be fifty yards off when she left the nest. I took off my shoes, though there was deep
snow everywhere, except just on the face of the rock, and first tried it from above; but it seemed
scarcely practicable. Then I went below ; and with the Lapp to support my feet, and Ludwig to
give me additional help with a pole, I managed to climb up. Just at the last bit I had to rest some
time. Then I drew myself up, and saw four eggs to my right hand, looking small in the middle
of a large nest. Again I waited to get steady for the final reach. I had only a bit of stone to
stand upon not bigger than a walnut, and frozen to the surface of the ledge, which sloped
outwards. I put two of the eggs into my cap, and two into my pocket, and cautiously with-
drew. The nest appeared to have been quite freshly made, and therefore by the bird herself.
The sticks were thick, certainly more so than those used by Ravens or Buzzards, and, unlike the

20

nests of the latter, which I saw the next day, they were barkless and bleached. The only lining
was a bundle or two of coarsish dry grass. As I returned I touched the eggs on a point of rock
above me, luckily without injuring them. I handed them down in a glove at the end of a pole
(which the Lapp improvised) after the fashion of a church collecting-bag ; and when they were
placed in a safe corner, my feet were put in the right places, and I descended in safety. I had
luckily brought a box with hay, and on the 12th May had the eggs safe at Muoniovaara. There
were young inside, perhaps an inch and a half long, with heads as big as horse-beans." Besides
the above, details are given of many other nests taken by Mr. Wolley and his collectors. One
nest, taken in a cliff near Pinkisjarvi on the 27th April, 1855, he describes as follows: — "The
nest, very large and with a considerable hollow, was made of fresh sticks, not very big ; and
inside were a few green willow twigs and several tufts of sedgy grass;" and one taken by
Ludwig, his man, in West Finmark, 28th April, 1857, is described as " built mostly of old bare
birch twigs ; and then upon these were some finer birch twigs with the bark on, but old and dried
up. These were mixed with others, rotten and crumbling, some Grouse-feathers, and bilberry-
leaves. The nest was about three ells from the bottom ; and the hollow was four inches deep,
and half an ell across." In almost all cases the nest was placed on a rock or in the cleft of a
cliff; but Mr. Wolley records two instances of this Falcon breeding in a tree, about seven
fathoms from the ground, the cause for the choice of so exceptional a situation for the nest
being probably the want of a suitable nesting-place in rocks near where it had taken up its
abode. The number of eggs deposited appears to be generally four, though in many cases three
only were found in the nest.

I possess a series of eggs collected in Lapland, which tolerably closely resemble those of the
Iceland Falcon both in size and coloration, but are rather finer in grain; and, judging from those
in my collection, they do not vary so much as the eggs of this latter species. They are closely
spotted or freckled with foxy red or reddish orange on a dull white ground, the latter being
scarcely discernible between the markings.

The specimens figured are an adult female on the left in the foreground, and a young male
to the right in the background, both from East Finmark, and in my collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens :—

B Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, 3 , nearly adult. East Finmark, June 1870 (Nordvi). b, d juv. East Finmark, August 26tk, 1869. c, $ ad.
East Finmark, 1870 (Nordvi). d,% ad. With large incubation-patch, Quickjock, Lapland, 1866
(T. E. Buckley).

E Mus. Smithson.

a, 2 . Fort Anderson, Arctic America, May 29th, 1864- (MacFurlane) . b, 6 . Fort Yukon, Porcupine River
(Captain F. J. Page), c, 6 . Fort Yukon, Arctic America, June 1862 (/. Lockhart). d, $ . America.

i

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vx

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mi*

369

Mzs

mt&

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/"/ i Mlhmi

■

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J G^Kenlcmana ad..

GREENLAND FALCON.

FALCO CANDICANS.

Mntern Bros - imp .

2.

FALCO CANDICANS.

(GREENLAND FALCON.)

Falco gyrfalco, Briss. Orn. i. p. 370, pi. xxx. fig. 2 (1760).

Le Gerfaut llanc, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. i. p. 241 (1770).

Falco islandus, var. alius, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 271 (1788, ex Briinn.).

Falco candicans, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 275 (1788).

Falco islandicus, Lath. Ind. Orn. i. p. 32 (1790).

Falco gyrfalco, Pall. Zoog. Rosso-As. i. p. 324 (1811, nee Linn.).

Hierofalco candicans (Gm.), Cuv. Regne Anim. i. p. 312 (1817).

Falco grcenlandicus, Hancock, Ann. Nat. Hist. ii. p. 247(1839).

Hierofalco gyrfalco, Kaup, Contr. Orn. 1850, p. 56 (nee Linn.).

Falco islandicus candicans, Holboll, Zeitschr. ges. Naturw. iii. p. 426 (1854).

Kirksoviarsuk Jcakortuinak, Greenlandic.

Figures notaliles.

DAubenton, PI. Enl. 446 ; Werner, Atlas, Rapaces, pi. 6 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl.
taf. 21. figs. 1, 2, taf. 390. fig. 1 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 19 ; Audub. B. of Am. pi. 366 ;
Elliot, B. N. Am. pi. 12; Susemihl, Vog. Eur. taf. 6a; Salv. & Brod. Falconry, 2nd ed.
pis. 10, 12, 13.

Ad. albus, plumis in corpore suprk, uropygio et alis suprk versus apicem nigro notatis : remigibus albis versus
apieem conspicue nigro notatis : Cauda alba immaculata : corpore subtiis albo, bypochondriis vix nigro
notatis : rostro flavido, versus apicem pallide corneo : pedibus flavis : iride fusca.

Juv. capite, collo et corpore subtiis albis, nigro-fusco striatis : corpore supra albo, plumis centraliter guttis
elongatis nigro-fuscis notatis, remigibus magis nigro-fusco quam in adulto notatis : cauda alba vix
nigro-fusco notata.

Adult Female (Labrador) . Upper parts pure white, the feathers on the back, rump, and upper surface of
the wings marked with a wide V-shaped black spot towards the tip ; quills white, broadly marked with
black towards the tip ; tail pure white ; underparts pure white, slightly striated on the lower flanks ;
bill yellowish, towards the tip horn-coloured ; legs yellowish ; claws light horn ; iris dark brown.
Total length about 23 inches, culmen 1-5, wing 16 - 5, tail 9'8, tarsus 30.

Young (Greenland) . Head, neck, and underparts white ; the head, breast, and flanks with narrow blackish
brown striations ; upper parts white with long, almost drop-shaped, brownish black central markings ;
quills with more black on them than in the adult ; tail white with a very few dark markings.

Obs. The two specimens above described appear to me to belong both to the palest form of this species.
Other adult birds have the upper parts more conspicuously marked with black, the markings being

u2

22

broader, and forming bands, the tail also being barred with blackish. In this darker form the young
birds have the upper parts much more profusely marked than in the young bird above described, the
dorsal feathers showing only a white margin ; the tail and wings are broadly barred, and underparts are
marked with brownish-black stripes. In all the young birds the dark markings are duller than in the
adult, being dull sooty brownish, whereas in the old bird they are clearer black. The bill in the young
bird is tinged with horn-blue, and the legs are greyish blue in tinge. As in all the Falcons, the male is
less in size than the female, the average size of the males in my collection being — culmen 1*3, wing 14 - 0,
tail 8-2, tarsus 2*75.
During the last four or five years I have made use of every available opportunity of examining specimens of
the northern Falcons in as many stages of plumage as possible ; and I have also succeeded in obtaining
for my own collection a tolerably fair series of examples from different localities. The result of my
investigations is that I now fully coincide with the opinion formed by Mr. Hancock (Ann. & Mag. of
Nat. Hist. 2nd ser. xiii. p. 110), and indorsed by several of our most eminent authorities, and lately, also,
by Professor Newton (Yarr. Brit. B. ed. 4, i. p. 38), viz. that the Greenland Falcon is invariably light-
coloured from its youth, and the Iceland Falcon dark-coloured above in both adult and young plumage.
In all the true Falcons, so far as I am aware, the immature dress is characterized by longitudinal
stripes and markings, whereas in the mature dress most of those markings are disposed transversely ;
and the northern Falcons make no exception ; but I believe that there is a good deal of individual
difference in the amount of colour in examples of the Greenland Falcon, many specimens being much
whiter than others from the earliest stage when feathered. I must not omit to refer to the researches
made by Mr. R. B. Sharpe on the present question, though at the same time I frankly confess that,
after carefully following him throughout his arguments, I cannot at all agree with him. In the first
place he entirely sets aside the important evidence obtained by a careful examination of living birds,
and restricts his researches to an examination of dried skins, which in a question of this nature are not
unfrequently apt to mislead one. I have now before me a most carefully executed painting by Wolf of
a young Greenland Falcon, taken from a live specimen in the possession of Mr. J. H. Gurney, and
another painting by the same eminent artist of the same bird after the lapse of four years ; and these
two drawings clearly illustrate the" changes in the character of the markings from longitudinal to trans-
verse. I may add that the opinion I hold in common with Mr. Hancock, Professor Newton, Mr.
Gurney, Mr. Gould, Professor Schlegel, and other eminent authorities coincides strictly with that
held by falconers who have studied these birds chiefly, if not altogether, when alive ; and it is therefore,
I may safely affirm, most likely to be the correct one. Judging from specimens kept in confinement or
used for the purpose of falconry, the young plumage is cast and that of maturity assumed at the first
moult, which takes place when the bird is from nine to fifteen months old ; and when once the adult
dress is obtained, no further alteration in colour takes place at subsequent moults.

The Greenland Falcon inhabits Greenland (where it is found chiefly in the northern districts),
Iceland, Arctic North America, and Northern Asia; and as a straggler it is found, as below
stated, at considerable distances from its true home. As regards its occurrence in Great Britain,
I cannot do better than quote from Professor Newton, who writes {op. cit. p. 42) as follows : —
" The young bird from which the figure here given was taken, was shot in Pembrokeshire, in a
warren belonging to Lord Cawdor, and by him presented to the Zoological Society, whence it
passed to the British Museum, where it now is. It had been observed, says Mr. Tracey (Zool.
p. 2639), by his father for eight or ten days before it was killed. A specimen taken at Port
Eliot, in Cornwall, and now in the collection of Mr. Bodd, as stated in the second edition of his
'List of British Birds' (but said by Mr. Brooking Rowe to be the example whose occurrence on

the Lynher in February 1834 was mentioned by Dr. Edward Moore), is believed by Mr. Rodd
to be of this form, as is probably one obtained at the Lizard, and also recorded by him. Hunt,
in his ' British Ornithology,' has figured an example taken alive on Bungay Common, in Suffolk,
some sixty years since ; but, from its tameness, it had possibly escaped from a falconer. In
Norfolk one was killed, according to Mr. Stevenson, in February 1S48, near Cromer; and other
large white Falcons have been seen in that county as well as in Suffolk. In Yorkshire there is
Mr. Hancock's excellent authority for the occurrence of one, which was wounded near York in
February 1837, and kept alive for some time by Mr. Allis; and Mr. Roberts has recorded (Zool.
p. 4558) one which was killed in Robin Hood's Bay in November 1854. A young male killed
in Islay, in February 1838, has come under Mr. Hancock's inspection; but at least four are
mentioned by Mr. Robert Gray in his work as having been killed of late years in the Hebrides ;
while two more have, on the same authority, occurred in other parts of Scotland — one in Lanark-
shire in 1835, and the other, an immature male, now in Mr. Newcome's collection, in Perthshire
in the spring of 18G2. The example described and figured in Pennant's 'British Zoology,' was
said to have been shot near Aberdeen ; and the engraving shows it to have been a young bird.
Messrs. Salvin and Brodrick, in their work before cited, also state that on two occasions, about
1840, a large white Falcon was seen in Ross-shire, and that in 1850 Messrs. St. John and
Hancock saw a Greenland Falcon near Elgin. On the 3rd March 1800, according to Dr. Saxby
(Zool. s. s. p. 288), a female was shot on Balta, one of the Shetlands ; and this example is now in
the collection of Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun. In Ireland, Thompson mentions one killed more than
thirty years since in Donegal, and subsequently a second, shot at Drumboe Castle, in the same
county. Mr. Blake-Knox has recorded a third Irish specimen, which is in the Museum of the
Dublin Natural-History Society, and appears to have been killed in the winter of 1862-03."

In Greenland the present species is the predominant form in the northern districts, the
Iceland Falcon being, if any thing, more numerous in the southern portions of that country. It
visits Iceland in some numbers in the winter season ; but, so far as can be ascertained, it does not
breed there, being, as a rule, absent in the summer season, though Herr Preyer mentions one
instance of its occurrence in Iceland at that season.

In Scandinavia it does not appear to have occurred, and is replaced by Falco gyrfalco ; but
the present species is certainly found in Spitzbergen ; for Mr. A. Benzon informs me that he
possesses an undoubted example received from there. It has been so frequently confused with
its allies, Falco gyrfalco and Falco islandus, that it is impossible to state, with any degree of
certainty, if it has ever been obtained on the continent of Europe ; but it appears somewhat
doubtful. It probably may be found on Novaya Zemlya, and possibly in the northern portions
of Russia, but only as a rare straggler. It certainly occurs in Northern Siberia ; for the specimen
obtained by Dr. Maack at Nertschinsk, on the Amoor, in March 1855, and referred to by Von
Schrenck, certainly belongs to the present species, as is clearly shown by the description given
by Dr. von Schrenck, which I translate as follows : — " The general colour is white, the moustache
is scarcely defined ; on the head are fine dark shaft-stripes, and on the neck and breast similar
but rather larger stripes. The underparts are white, marked with a few greyish brown shaft-
stripes, and the flanks are marked with similar lancet-shaped spots ; back white."

According to Professor Schlegel the present species is known to the Japanese; and in

24

America it inhabits the extreme northern districts, where it appears to be met with right across
the continent ; and Mr. Kidgway says that it is of irregular occurrence in winter throughout the
circumpolar regions. Mr. Bannister writes (Trans. Chic. Acad. Sci. i. p. 271) as follows: — "I
learned from the residents of St. Michael's that a species supposed to be this one is not unfre-
quent, though it did not come under my own observation. On the voyage home, however, on
the 21st of October, 1866, when off the coast of Kamtschatka, a little north of Behring's Island,
one of these birds alighted in the rigging." It is stated to be met with not unfrequently in Canada
during the winter ; and my brother informs me that he has seen several examples which were
shot near Ottawa. According to Mr. Reeks it is also a tolerably regular autumn visitant to
Newfoundland ; and, judging from the specimens I have seen sent from there, it cannot be rare
in Labrador.

I have unfortunately been unable to procure any details respecting the nidification of the
present species ; but doubtless it does not differ much from its allies, Falco islandus and Falco
rjyrfalco, in its mode of nidification. It breeds in the more northern portions of Greenland and
of North America. From the former country I have received through Herr Justitsraad Erichsen
and Mr. A. Benzon several eggs of the present species, which closely resemble those of Falco
gyrfalco, but seem, as a rule, to have a slightly rougher texture of shell than the eggs of that
species. The Greenland Falcon used formerly to be most highly prized for falconry ; and very
large prices were paid for birds of the present species obtained in Iceland. Professor Newton
gives, in the new edition of Yarrell's ' British Birds,' some most interesting details on this head,
chiefly culled from Professor Schlegel's ' Traite de Fauconnerie,' which, however, I need scarcely
recapitulate here.

The specimens figured are an old female in the whitest stage of plumage, on another Plate
an adult bird in the darker and more strongly marked stage of plumage in the foreground to the
right, and in the background to the left a young bird of the lightest form, showing the longi-
tudinal markings on the back.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens: —

F Mus. H. F. Dresser.

a, b, $ ad., c, d, 2juv., e, f, tfjuv. Greenland. g, $ ad. Iceland (A. Benzon). h, 2 ad., i, k, juv. Labrador
: (Moschler) .

F Mus. Frit. Beg.

a, b. Greenland (Gould), c, d, e,f. Lichtenfels, S. Greenland (Dr. O. Finsch). g, h, i. Labrador (Gould),
k. N. America (Hudson's- Bay Co.). 1. N. America (Sir A. Bach).

370

JXrKeulemans litk.

M&N.Harihart nnj.

ICELAND. FALCON

YOUNG.

371

•

JG.Keulema.Jis Utk.

M &■- N . Hankart imp

ICELAND FALCON.

FALCO ISLANDUS

25

FALCO ISLANDUS.

(ICELAND FALCON.)

Accipiter falco islandicus, Briss. Orn. i. p. 336 (1760).

Accipiter gyrfalco islandicus, Briss. torn. cit. p. 373, pi. xxxi. (1760).

Le Gerfaut d'Islande, D'Aubent. PL Enl. 210 (1770).

Falco islandus, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 271 (1788).

Hierofalco islandicus, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 55 (1831).

Falco islandicus, Hancock, Ann. Nat. Hist. ii. p. 247(1839).

Falco candicans islandicus, Schl. Abh. Geb. Zool. p. 14 (1841).

Falco arcticus, Holb. Zeitschr. ges. Naturw. Hi. p. 426 (1854).

Falco gyrfalco islandicus, Schl. Mus. Pays-Bas, Falc. p. 14 (1864).

Falco holbcelli, Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1873, p. 415.

Hierofalco holbcelli, Sharpe, Cat. Accip. p. 415 (1874).

Falki, VeffSifalM, Valur, Icelandic; Fdlkur, Faeroese; Jagtfalk, Islandsk-Falk, Danish.

Figurce notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PI. Enl. 210 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 22. figs. 1, 2, taf. 390. fig. 2 ;
Salvin & Brocl. pi. 11; Sharpe, Cat. Accip. pi. 13, left figure; Gould, B. of G. Brit. i.
pis. 11, 12.

Ad. fronte alba nigro-fusco striata : pileo, nucha et collo postico albis, plumis ccntralitcr nigro-schistaceis :
dorso et alis supra saturate fusco-schistaceis, albido et albo-cervino fasciatis : uropygio et supracau-
dalibus schistaceo-creruleis, paUide cinereo-cano fasciatis : remigibus schistaceo-nigricantibus, extus
cervino-albo notatis et in pogonio interuo eodem colore fasciatis : cauda cinerea, fusco-schistaceo
fasciata et albo terminate : mento et gula albis, gutture nigro-fusco striato : corpore relicpio subtus
albo, guttis nigro-fuscis notato, hypochondriis in parte superiore conspicue eodem colore maculatis
et in parte ima fasciatis, subcaudalibus pallide schistaceo fasciatis : rostro cseruleo-corneo, versus
apicem saturatiore : cera, et pedibus fiavis : iride fusca.

Juv. Falconi gyrfalconi similis sed capite pallidiore, stria mystacali nulla, corpore supra et cauda saturation bus
et liac minus fasciata.

Adidt Male (Greenland) . Forehead white, striated with blackish ; crown and nape dull white, the centres
of the feathers slaty black, the hind crown having these centres to the feathers very fully developed ;
back, scapulars, secondaries, and wing-coverts dark slate with a brownish tinge, more or less regularly
barred with white, or white with a buff tinge ; rump and upper tail-coverts dull slate-blue, barred with
blue-grey; quills slaty blackish, marked on the outer web and barred on the inner web with buffy
white; tail ashy grey, barred with dark blackish or brownish slate, and tipped with white, the outer
rectrices having a whiter ground-colour than the central ones ; sides of the head like the crown ; chin
and upper throat white; lower throat streaked with blackish brown; rest of the underparts white,

2D

26

marked with blackish brown stripes which terminate in a drop-shaped spot, lower flanks barred some-
what broadly, the upper flanks being marked with rather large heart-shaped spots ; under tail-coverts
rather irregularly barred ; bill bluish horn, darkest at the tip ; cere and legs yellow ; iris dark brown.
Total length about 21 , 5-22 inches, culmen 1/35, wing 14 - 5, tail 8 - 9, tarsus 2 - 3.

Female. Resembles the male, but is larger, measuring— total length 24-24-5 inches, culmen l - 52, wing 16 - 3,
tail 9*95, tarsus 2'4.

Young (Ofjord, Iceland). Differs from the young of Falco gyrfalco merely in having the head rather lighter
and lacking the blackish moustachial streak which the young of that species has ; and the young of the
present species appears always to have the back and tail less marked with lighter colour, the tail
especially being less barred than the young Jer Falcon.

Nestling (Iceland). Covered with white down, slightly tinged with primrose.

So far as I can ascertain, the present species has a more restricted range than either the Falco
gyrfalco or Falco candicans ; for it inhabits Iceland and Southern Greenland, whence it straggles
to Northern Europe ; and it is also met with on the east coast of North America.

This species of northern Falcon has occurred, perhaps, somewhat less frequently in Great
Britain than the Greenland Falcon ; but as both have been recorded under the same name, it is
somewhat difficult to determine to which species the various recorded occurrences refer. Pro-
fessor Newton, who has probably gone more carefully into the question than any one I know, writes
(Yarr. Brit. B. ed. 4, i. p. 49) as follows : — "As regards England, Thompson quotes from a letter of
Mr. Hancock's the occurrence of a young bird at Billingham, on the North Tyne, in January 1845,
which was then in the collection of Mr. Charles Adamson, of Newcastle ; and this capture is also
recorded by Mr. Bold in the ' Zoologist ' for that year. The same letter also notices an Iceland
Falcon, in its first plumage, killed at Normanby, near Guisborough, in Yorkshire, in March 1837,
of which a brief description by the late Mr. Hogg appeared in the volume of the useful periodical
just mentioned. Both these birds are now in Mr. Hancock's collection. Mr. Borrer possesses an
adult Iceland Falcon shot at Mayfield, in Sussex, in January 1845. These, with an immature
specimen in the Norwich Museum, killed at Inverbroome, in Ross-shire, 1851 — probably one of
those already included by Mr. Gray — and a young male from Scotland, in the possession of
Mr. Gurney, jun., are all the British examples which at the present time can be, with any
amount of certainty, referred to the Iceland Falcon." To this I may add that Mr. A. Clapham
informs me that he possesses a male killed on Filey Brigg, and a young female shot at Poppleton,
near York; and I am indebted to Mr. Cecil Smith for the following note: — " I do not know of
the occurrence of either this or the Greenland Falcon in Somerset. In the Channel Islands it
may have occurred more than once, as Professor Ansted, in his list of Channel-Island birds,
mentions the Gyr Falcon as having occurred in Guernsey, but does not say to which of the three
species formerly included under the general name Gyr Falcon he alludes ; nor does he give any
description, or state where the bird is now to be seen. Mr. Couch, the bird-stuffer in Guernsey,
however, recorded in the 'Zoologist' for 1876 the fact of either an Iceland or Greenland Falcon
having been shot by the gamekeeper at the little island of Herm on the 11th of April of that
year. As I was in Guernsey in the June following I saw and obtained the bird. It is an

27

adult Iceland Falcon ; and Mr. Couch informed me he had found it to be a male by dissection.
I was also informed that it had been seen about by the keeper for some little time in company
with another similar bird. The small island of Herm, about three miles from Guernsey, is
rented by a gentleman who occupies it mostly for the purpose of shooting and game-preserving,
and amongst other things rears a good many Pheasants ; these the two Falcons seem to have
found very fine eating, as the keeper saw them kill several Pheasants ; at length, getting savage
at seeing hen Pheasants killed just at the beginning of the breeding-season, he watched for a
shot, and at length, as the birds had become rather less wary than they were at first, got a shot
at and obtained this bird." Referring to the occurrence of this Falcon in Scotland, Mr. Robert
Gray states (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 22): — "Between 1835 and 1851 several specimens of this
Falcon were shot in Ross-shire, Sutherlandshire, and Inverness-shire ; and within the last four
years I have satisfied myself that four or five have been shot in the west of Scotland. One was
killed by Captain M'Rae on the island of Vallay, Outer Hebrides, in September 1865. It
haunted the farmyard for some time, and was quite fearless in its attacks among the poultry,
killing a great many chickens before it met its fate. This bird is now in the collection of
Dr. Dewar, of Glasgow. Another, a fine male, had been shot in October of the previous year in
North Uist by Allan M'Lean, gamekeeper there ; and a third Hebridean specimen was found
washed ashore dead on the west side of the island about the same time, but was not discovered
until it had been disfigured by Hooded Crows. It has likewise occurred on the inner islands, as
I have been informed by Mr. Elwes, who writes that ' one which was shot in Islay is now in the
museum at Islay House.' In September 1866 another fine Iceland Falcon was caught in a pole-
trap at Glendaruel, Argyleshire ; but unfortunately this bird was lost, the trap not having been
looked at for some days after it was sprung. The species, however, was identified beyond a
doubt."

Dr. Saxby also writes (B. of Shetl. p. 15) as follows: — " Until within the last fifteen years,
the Iceland Falcon used to visit these islands, Unst especially, with some regularity, between
autumn and spring, usually after a snow-storm accompanied by a heavy gale ; now, however, two
or three years may pass without the appearance of a single individual being recorded. I saw the
last in February 1871, when two, possibly a pair, visited Balta Sound, and remained there several
days, keeping mostly near the beach, and feeding upon the Snipes and Starlings which had been
driven from inland by the frost. I kept them under careful and almost constant observation, and
could distinguish but little difference between their habits and those of the Greenland Falcon,
except that these, although occasionally coming near the pigeon-boxes and poultry-yards, seemed
more inclined to avoid the haunts of man. Although the two birds were seldom more than half
a mile or a mile apart, each hunted independently for itself. Once, when the larger of the two
struck a Rock-Dove into the water, the other came up hurriedly, but whether with a selfish
motive or with a desire to render assistance is uncertain. Both, however, hovered about the
victim for nearly a quarter of an hour, but without attempting to recover it. In 1858 I was
shown the moth-eaten and otherwise dilapidated skin of a male which had been killed in Unst
about a year previously, and in the autumn of the same year was barely able to recognize the
remains of one among the drift upon the sands at Norwick. I have only had one other in my

2d2

28

hands. It was shot at Burravoe, in the island of Yell, in March 1868, while sitting upon a wall
devouring a tame Pigeon."

To the continent of Europe the present species straggles but rarely. So far as I can
ascertain, it has not occurred in Scandinavia, being there replaced by Falco gyrfalco ; but is found
in the Fseroes, where, according to Captain Feilden, it is by no means uncommon in the winter
months, but has not been known to breed there. Mr. A. Benzon informs me that either this
species or Falco gyrfalco now and again occurs in Denmark, but he cannot determine which, as
they are almost always in immature dress ; but it is stated to have occurred in Holland and
Germany. It appears doubtful if the present species has ever occurred in Asia, though several
authors record it from there. Greenland and Iceland, especially the latter, appear to be its true
home. Professor Newton says that it " is probably of universal occurrence in Iceland, but
certainly more common near Myvatn than anywhere else in the island, owing perhaps to the
great facilities for breeding afforded them by the inaccessible precipices in the neighbourhood,
and to the abundance of food in the immediate vicinity." In Greenland it is stated to be
tolerably common in the southern portions of the country, where it breeds ; but in the north it
is replaced by Falco candicans.

I have seen several specimens from the eastern side of North America ; but the species found
in other portions of North America is certainly not the Iceland Falcon, but the true Jer Falcon,
precisely similar to the Norwegian bird. I possess examples of the Iceland Falcon from
Labrador, where, however, it would appear to be a straggler, the resident species there being
Falco labradorus.

In habits the present species does not differ from its allies the Greenland Falcon and the
Jer Falcon ; but though swift and strong on the wing, and formerly highly valued for falconry,
it is, Messrs. Salvin and Brodrick say, by no means up to the high standard one would naturally
expect it to be. Some trained at Mr. Newcome's failed, they say, in taking hares, and only
one or two out of the number proved good Heron-Hawks. The present species, these gentle-
men write, " was formerly used in this country for flying the Fork-tailed Kite, which forty or
fifty years ago was a common bird in many districts, although now so seldom seen. This sport
was much followed by the Earl of Orford and Colonel Thornton about the year 1773, and by
Mr. Colquhoun, of Wretham near Thetford, about 1785. Brandon warren, in Norfolk, and the
neighbourhood of Alconbury Hill, in Huntingdonshire, were favourite localities for Kite-hawking.
Sir John Sebright relates the mode in which this sport was carried on, viz. that the great Owl
(Strix bubo), to the leg of which the falconers attached a fox's brush, was thrown up for the
purpose of drawing the Kite down, upon which the Falcons were slipped at him. This Falcon
was also sometimes employed in taking hares. Many, however, consider all ground-game quite
beneath the notice of a bird possessing such power of wing as a Falcon, and would "leave it
entirely to the Goshawk. At the present day Iceland Falcons that are trained to ' wait on,'
might be used for Grouse- and Blackgame-hawking, as also for Herons, Wild Geese and Ducks,
and probably also for Gulls, Rooks, &c."

The Iceland Falcon is a stouter-built and larger bird than the Greenland and Jer Falcon ;
and the tail is proportionally shorter, the wings longer, and the head much larger. Professor
Newton, quoting from Mr. Hoy, carefully points out these distinctions, as also the difference in

29

the sternum, and writes as follows : — " The head is larger, so much so that, in modelling the
hoods for trained birds of the two kinds, falconers use different blocks. Whether all these
distinctive features can be established on the comparison of a large series of specimens, is perhaps
uncertain ; but it does appear that in some parts at least of the structure of the two forms there
exists a remarkable difference of proportion, which does not seem to have been hitherto noticed.
The average length of the sternum and coracoid in Falco islandus, as ascertained by the careful
measurement of six female specimens, not specially selected for the purpose, in the Museum of
the University of Cambridge, is 5-46861 inches, while the average length of the same bones in as
many specimens of F. gijrfalco of the same sex, and in the same Museum, is 5-0G383 inches.
This would at once show that the Icelander has the longer body of the two by nearly half an
inch ; but the difference becomes more striking when it is found that the breadth of the sternal
apparatus does not vary in accordance with its length, being absolutely broadest in the Gyr
Falcon, and, further, that the disproportion is chiefly caused by the elongation of the coracoid
bones in the Icelander, where the sternum alone has an average length of 3'65G08 inches against
3-47143 inches in the true Gyr Falcon."

After a careful examination of the series in the British Museum, as well as that at Norwich,
I cannot agree with Mr. Sharpe in assigning specific rank to the lighter-coloured examples of
this species : and I feel sure that in one instance at least he has included the Greenland Falcon
as Falco holbcelli; for an example which he figures in his catalogue (pi. 13, right-hand figure),
nearly as white as any Greenland Falcon, is, in my opinion, true Falco candicans. This specimen
was received from Mr. Gould, who labelled it as coming from Iceland ; and I can well believe
that such was the case, as I possess a specimen closely resembling it, which was most certainly
shot in Iceland ; but Mr. Gould, on being questioned, was not quite certain as to whether it
really did come from that island, and Mr. Sharpe therefore altered the locality from Iceland to
Greenland. So far as I can gather, Holboll's Falco arcticus was true F. islandus; and this is
borne out by information received from Mr. Bond, who assures me that he has seen numerous
examples sent over by Governor Holboll, all of which were ordinary dark Iceland Falcons.
Like the Greenland Falcon the present species is subject to considerable variation in shade of
colour ; but the palest specimen I have seen is much darker on the upper parts than the Green-
land Falcon, has the upper parts washed with blue-grey, the light markings smaller than the
darker portions of the plumage, and the inner webs of the primaries and the tail very distinctly
and strongly barred.

Like the Greenland Falcon the present species nests in the cliffs, usually choosing a place
which is very difficult of access. Mr. Hewitson, writing respecting Mr. Proctor's visit to Iceland,
says: — "He had gone out for the purpose of collecting birds and their eggs, but did not reach
the favourite localities of the Iceland Falcon till the broods were flown. This was in the
beginning of August, when he shot several full-grown young ones, and found some of the
deserted nests; the one from which he took the egg then drawn was composed of sticks and
roots, lined with wool, amongst which the egg, a rotten one, was embedded. He supposes that
the nest may have been that of a Raven, which is most probable, as it resembled one. The
remains of many birds (Whimbrels, Golden Plovers, Guillemots, and Ducks) lay strewed about
the nest. This nest and others which Mr. Proctor saw were all in the cliffs forming the boundaries

30

of freshwater lakes, but none of them so high in the mountainous districts as he expected to
have found them." Mr. Benzon informs me that the eggs, usually four, and sometimes only
three in number, are deposited early in May, and that the young when hatched are very plenti-
fully supplied with food by their parents.

Eggs of the Iceland Falcon in my collection vary exceedingly ; the ordinary run of the series
I possess are pale yellowish clay-white, so closely marked with reddish orange as almost to appear
uniform reddish orange in colour; some, however, are white, somewhat sparingly blotched all
over with reddish orange ; some are more profusely blotched with dull (almost chestnut) red ; and
one is almost uniform dull rufous clay-coloured. In size they vary from 2^ by lf-jy and 2^f by
Iff inch to 2^§ by Iff inch.

The specimens figured are an adult bird on the one Plate and a young bird on the other
Plate, both being those above described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, 2 juv. Iceland (/. Baker), b, d juv. Ofjord, Iceland, 1871 {A. Benzon). c, tf ad. Greenland. d,juv.
Greenland {Moschler). e, <3 ad.,f, $ juv. Greenland {A. Benzon). g, 6 juv. Labrador {Moschler).

E Mus. Feilden and Harvie-Brown.
a, J ad. Akureyri, Iceland, November 7th, 1871 {A. Benzon).

E Mus. A. Benzon.

a, pull. Iceland, 1871.

E. Mus. Brit. Beg.
a, b, c. Iceland (J. Gould), d, e. Greenland (H. Saunders), f. Fiskensesset, Greenland.

37

o

J G Keulemana del

PEREGRINE.

FALCO PEREGRINUS

Mintern Bros imp

31

FALCO PEREGRINUS.

(PEREGRINE.)

Accipiter falco, Briss. Orn. i. p. 321 (1760).

Accipiter falco hornotinus, Briss. torn. cit. p. 324 (1760).

Accipiter falco peregrinus, Briss. torn. cit. p. 341 (1760).

Le Faucon sors, Buff. Hist. Ois. i. p. 254. pi. xv. (1770).

Le Faucon hagard, Buff. torn. cit. p. 254, pi. xvi. (1770).

Falco peregrinus, Tunstall, Oraithologia Britannica, p. 1 (1771).

Oriental Hawk, Lath. Gen. Synop. i. p. 34 (1781).

Behree Falcon, Lath. Gen. Synop. Suppl. p. 35 (1787).

Falco orientalis, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 264 (1788, ex Lath.).

Falco communis, Gm. torn. cit. p. 270 (1788).

Falco hornotinus, Gm. torn. cit. p. 270 (1788).

Falco peregrinus, Gm. torn. cit. p. 272 (1788).

Falco calidus, Lath. Ind. Orn. i. p. 41 (1790).

Falco lunulatus, Daud. Traite d'Orn. ii. p. 127 (1800).

Falco abietinus, Bechst. Naturg. Vog. Deutschl. i. p. 759 (1805).

Falco pinetarius, Shaw, Gen. Zool. vii. p. 195 (1809).

Falco gentilis, Wils. Mem. Wern. Soc. ii. p. 587 (1818).

Falco cornicum, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 62 (1831).

Falco griseiventris, C. L. Brehm, Isis, 1833, p. 778.

Falco anatum, Bp. Comp. List, p. 4 (1838).

Falco micrurus, Hodgs. in Gray's Zool. Misc. p. 81 (1844).

Falco nigriceps, Cass. Illust. B. Calif, p. 87 (1855).

Falco leucogenys, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 26 (1855).

Falco atriceps, Hume, Ibis, 1869, p. 356.

Falco brookii, Sharpe, Ann. Nat. Hist. xi. pp. 20, 222 (1873).

Sheabhag, Gaelic ; Faucon pelerin, French ; Falcao, Portuguese ; Alcon, Spanish ; Falcone,
Italian ; Teir-el-hor, Moorish ; Tauben-Falke, Wander-Falke, German ; Valk, Slechtvalk,
Dutch ; Vandringsfalk, Danish ; Kirksoviarsukmillekulartok, Greenlandic ; Pilegrimsfalk,
Norwegian ; Pelegrimsfalk, Swedish ; Muuttohaukka, Finnish ; Sapsan, Russian.

Figures notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PI. Enl. 421, 470; Werner, Atlas, Rapaces, pi. 9; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. ii. ;
Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 83 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 10. figs. 8, 9 ; Naumann, Vog.
Deutschl. taf. 24, 25 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 26. fig. 2 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 21 ;
id. B. of G. Brit. i. pi. 17; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pis. 1, 2, 3 ; Audub. B. of Am. pi. 20;

4a

32

2

Wilson, Am.-Orn. pi. 76; Salvin & Brod. Falconry, pis. 1-5; Schlegel & Verst. Traite
Fauc. pis. 11, 12.

d ad. capite, nucha, collo postico, capitis lateribus et macula sub oculo longitudinali fusco-nigricantibus, pilei
plumis nonnullis centraliter saturatioribus, dorso et tectricibus alarum cinereo-caerulescentibus fusco
transversim fasciatis : remigibus nigricantibus, in pogonio interno maculis oblongis transversis albi-
cantibus notatis, secundariis intimis dorso concoloribus : uropygio et supracaudalibus magis cserules-
centibus : cauda, nigro-fusca, valde cinereo fasciata et albido apicata, : corpore subtiis albo vix cervino
tincto, gula et pectore summo nigro-fusco guttatis, pectore inferiore, abdomine, femoribus et crisso
transversim nigricante undulatis : cera, et pedibus flavis : rostro saturate corneo-Cffiruleo, ad basin
pallidiore : iride fusca..

d juv. supra saturate fuscus, marginibus pennarum ferruginescentibus, fronte et pileo antico albidis, nucha
et collo postico rufescente albido notatis : remigibus primariis ut in adulto picturatis sed albido
marginatis, secundariis dorso concoloribus : mento albo : corpore subtus albido, rufescente cervino
lavato et conspicue nigro-fusco striato : cauda, nigro-fusca, albido apicata, rectricibus in pogonio
interno ochraceo fasciatis et in pogonio externo maculis oblongis transversis notatis : cera et pedibus
cseruleis : rostro et iride ut in adulto coloratis.

Adult Male (near Stettin) . Crown, nape, hind neck, sides of the head to below the eye, and a large
moustachial patch sooty black, some of the feathers on the crown having slightly darker centres ;
back, scapulars, wing-coverts, and secondaries dark slate-blue, with darker, almost blackish slate bars,
which are much broader on the upper part of the back, and become narrower below ; the lower portion
of the back much lighter, becoming slate-blue on the rump and upper tail-coverts, which latter have
also darker cross bars ; primaries black with a greyish tinge, on the terminal portion slightly edged
with white, and on the inner web marked with oblong greyish white spots ; tail blackish with slate-
blue broad bars at the base, which gradually become darker slate towards the tip; extreme tip of the
tail brownish white ; underparts white with a warm rufous-uff tinge] ; throat and upper breast marked
with only a few stray long drop-shaped markings ; rest of the underparts boldly barred with blackish ;
cere and legs yellow ; iris brown ; bill dark bluish horn, becoming light blue at the base. Total length
about 15 - 5 inches, culmen 1-1, wing 12"2, tail 6'4, tarsus 2'2, middle toe with claw 1*7.

Adult Female (Macedonia, 9th December) . Resembles the male above described, but is larger, measuring —
total length 19*5 inches, culmen 14, wing 14 - 0, tail 7 - 8, tarsus 2 - 3, middle toe with claw 2'05.

Young Male (Volga, May). Crown, sides of the head, and moustachial patch black with a brownish tinge,
the fore and centre parts of the crown conspicuously marked with dirty white ; nape and hind neck
marked with pale rufous or reddish white ; upper parts blackish brown, the feathers having narrow
lighter edges ; rump-feathers with fulvous tips and edges, the upper tail-coverts having these tips
broad and nearly white ; tail dark brown with a greyish tinge, tipped with white, and marked with
bands on the inner web, and almost oval spots on the outer web of the feathers of a warm ochreous
or reddish buff tinge ; primary quills as in the adult, but with rather broader whitish edges, secondaries
coloured like the back ; chin white ; rest of the underparts white with a warm rufous buff tinge,
broadly striped with blackish brown ; cere and feet bluish ; bill and iris as in the adult.

Few of the Eaptores have so extensive a range as the present species, which is met with from
the icy mountain-ranges of Greenland down to the parched wastes of South Africa, throughout

the whole of Asia down to Java and Sumatra, and in the Nearctic Eegion from the Hudson's
Bay territory as far south as the Argentine Confederation.

It is still found in Great Britain, though in greatly diminished numbers compared with
what it formerly used to be. Professor Newton (Yarr. Brit. B. ed. iv. p. 59) writes as follows: —
" In this country it still breeds, chiefly on the cliffs of the sea-coast throughout the south of
England, from Cornwall to Kent. Formerly there was annually a nest in the cliff at Hunstanton,
and one in the steeple of Corton church in Suffolk ; and it is registered by Mr. More as breeding
until a few years ago in the district of the Severn, where, indeed, it may possibly still be found
as an occasional permanent inhabitant. On the coast of Wales, particularly in the south-west
and north of the principality, it may be regarded as breeding regularly, and again from Yorkshire
northward to the Shetlands ; but it is far more thinly scattered in the south than in the north of
Great Britain, and is not at all unfrequent on the rocky headlands of the north and west coasts."
With respect to its occurrence on the south coast of England I am informed by Mr. Gatcombe
that " it is occasionally both shot and trapped in the neighbourhood of Plymouth, and a few
still breed on the coasts of Devon and Cornwall. In May last one took up its quarters in the
midst of a colony of breeding Herring-Gulls among the cliffs at Wembury, near the mouth of
the river Yealm, a few miles from Plymouth, where I feel almost sure it also had a nest, from
the anxiety it seemed to show, constantly flying round and round one particular spot, and making
a tremendous noise until I left the place. It was often attacked by a Raven breeding in the
vicinity; and an irate Herring-Gull would now and then try to drive it off; but the Falcon would
persistently return to the same spot. A pair used to nest annually at Beer Head, on the coast
near Sidmouth ; and a few months since the remains of a fine specimen were sent to me from
Seaton in the same locality. I have within the last few years examined several examples,
both adult and young, which have been sent to our bird-stuffers, and a few nestlings in the
down, alive."

It may still breed, 1 believe, in the Isle of Wight ; and Mr. G. Dawson Rowley, writing in
1860, says (Ibis, 1860, p. 200) that three nests came under his notice — one in the cliff near
Seaford, and two at the back of the Isle of Wight. " Four eggs were obtained at Freshwater,
and both Falcon and Tiercel, alas! caught in one day." Writing respecting its occurrence in
Dorsetshire, Mr. J. C. Mansel-Pleydell says that it " breeds at Gadcliff in Purbeck, and further
westward at Whitenore. It would probably have been extirpated long ago but for the inaccessi-
bility of its strongholds of refuge ;" and Mr. Cecil Smith informs me that it would be tolerably
common in Somersetshire were it not for the gamekeepers, who shoot and trap it on every
possible occasion. In spite, however, of this constant persecution, a few pairs breed every year
in such parts of the county as are suited to them. Writing to me from Oundle, Northants,
Lord Lilford says, " I am persuaded that this splendid Falcon is much more common in England
than is generally believed, although no doubt many of its former breeding-places on our coasts
are now no longer tenanted ; we have a large share of the autumnal passage of Falcons from the
north, which in days gone by supplied Europe with these birds caught on the heaths of the
Netherlands. In this county (Northants), from about the time of the autumnal equinox till
the end of April, and occasionally much later, I can make pretty sure of seeing one or two
Peregrine Falcons any day. Their principal quarry in this neighbourhood consists of wild fowl

4a2

34

and Wood-Pigeons. I saw one, a fine adult male, shot whilst in pursuit of a Fieldfare, and
once witnessed a fine flight by a Peregrine after a Starling high in air : after eight unsuccessful
stoops the Starling was clutched and carried off to the topmost bough of a very high ash tree,
where in less than two minutes the captor was robbed of his prey by another bird of his own
species. Often when exercising my trained Falcons in this immediate neighbourhood, a wild
one has come to look on, and my falconer has twice taken immature Falcons here with the
bow net and Pigeon, aided by an Ash-coloured Shrike (L. eoccubitor), in the manner so graphically
described in Freeman and Salvin's ' Falconry,' p. 97. To cite instances of the capture and
slaughter of this fine species in this county would be tedious and unnecessary ; suffice it to say
that I consider it the most common of our diurnal Raptores, with the exception of the common
Kestrel. I have met with the Peregrine in every county of England, Wales, Scotland, and
Ireland that I have visited in the autumn and winter, and one summer, not many years ago,
had offers of young Peregrines from no less than nine eyries in various parts of Great Britain ;
so that I have every reason to believe that there is no fear of, at all events, a speedy extinction
of this species." On the east coast of England it is met with almost only during passage.
Mr. Stevenson says that he knows no recent instance of its breeding in Norfolk, though,
according to Mr. Cordeaux, it " nests at Flamborough, and there were two eyries of the
Peregrine on the Speeton cliffs, on the north side of the headland, in the summer of 1867."
In Scotland it still occurs, not uncommonly, and is tolerably widely distributed. Mr. Robert
Gray writes (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 23) as follows: — "Although subjected to an extraordinary
amount of persecution, this beautiful Falcon maintains a good hold throughout those districts
in which it has been well known for centuries, and may still be called a common bird in many
districts of Western Scotland, ranging from Burrow Head to Cape Wrath.

" In mountainous and rocky tracts on the inner islands and mainland of Argyle, Inverness,
Boss, and Sutherland shires it is found commonly in pairs, each frequenting a radius of about
six or eight miles. In Islay, Mull, and Jura, as well as the islands of minor extent, it is about
equally distributed, but is much more plentiful in Skye and its outlying stacks of rock, whose
precipitous sides afford abundant shelter and protection. It is also comparatively common
in the Outer Hebrides, breeding on the higher hills. I have traced it from Barra to Lewis,
and have seen it on all the intervening islands. Mr. John M'Donald, of Newton, North Uist,
imforms me that he has seen the Peregrine during the breeding-season on the Haskeir rocks,
between Harris and St. Kilda, and on St. Kilda itself, where there are several pairs.

"As we leave these isolated and almost inpregnable fortresses of the Peregrine, and approach
the mainland, we find that the ravages of keepers and collectors have of late years greatly thinned
its numbers. Among the deserted eyries of the south-western counties may be mentioned Dum-
barton rock, and at least three or four stations on the cliffs between Giroan and the entrance to
Loch Ryan, including that on Knockdolian Hill.

"There are still many pairs to be found in the vicinity of Ben Lomond and on the
mountain-ranges stretching from the head of Loch Long both to the north and west. From
these districts and other parts of Argyleshire, as well as the island of Arran, considerable
numbers of Peregrines are sent in to the Glasgow birdstuffers. In Ayrshire several inland
haunts, such as the parish of Straiton, are yet frequented ; the same may be said of Wigton-

35

shire, in which county, however, the eyries at Mull of Galloway, Port Patrick, and Barrow Head
are now all but abandoned."

The Peregrine does not appear to occur in Iceland ; but, according to Professor Newton, it
is said to breed generally throughout Greenland, certainly up to lat. 69° N., and in many of the
islands to the westward of Baffin's Sea. Examples obtained by Dr. Walker, of the ' Fox '
R.Y. S., at Port Kennedy (lat. 72° N.), are specifically undistinguishable from European speci-
mens. Dr. Otto Finsch also, in some interesting notes on a collection of birds from South-west
Greenland, remarks that examples from there closely agree with others from the mainland of
Europe ; but I cannot agree with him in uniting Falco melanogenys, Gould, with our European
Peregrine.

Mr. H. C. Miiller records but one instance of its occurrence (at Kollefjord, in September
1867) in the Faeroes; but it is common in Scandinavia. Mr. Collett says that it breeds here and
there both in the interior of Norway as far north as South Varanger and Vadso, and on the
coast up to the Lofoten Islands. In South Norway it passes up into the alpine region in
summer, and is found throughout the entire range of the Jotunfjeld and Dovre; but it also
breeds here and there in the lowlands, as for instance in the Christiania valley and Smaalehncne.
Pastor Sommerfelt says that it is a rare bird on the Varangerfiord, and that it is doubtful if it
breeds there. In a letter lately received Mr. Collett informs me that on two occasions
Mr. Nordvi obtained a clutch of four eggs of a Falcon, taken in a mountain at Najsseby in
Finmark, which are less than those of the Peregrine, but larger than those of the Hobby. Two
of these eggs, now in the collection of Mr. II. Seebohm, I have seen, and am unable to state
with certainty to what species they belong ; but they certainly appear to me to be only abnormally
small Peregrine's eggs. Professor Sundevall states that the Peregrine breeds on the Swedish side
as far north as Njunnatsfjeld, near Quickjock, in 67^ N. lat., and at Juckasjarvi in 68° N. lat. ;
and in Finland it is tolei'ably widely distributed throughout the country. I met with it in most
parts of the country, but only found it breeding in the high north. In Russia it ranges far north.
I have received it from near Archangel ; and Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Seebohm obtained it on
the river Petchora.

Mr. Sabanaeff says that it is generally distributed in the Governments of Moscow, Smolensk,
Jaroslaf, and Vladimir, and is frequently seen on the spires in the city of Moscow. In the Tula
Government it is rare, is found in that of Orloff during passage, and is but seldom seen in the
Kieff Government. It breeds near Moscow. In the Ural he met with it exclusively in the
mountains.

I have met with the present species in the Baltic provinces, and in all parts of North
Germany I have visited, and have several times obtained its eggs from Pomerania, where it
would appear to breed not unfrequently. Professor Kjserbolling says it is neither rare nor
common in Denmark, where it is also found breeding. And it breeds in some portions of Western
Germany ; for Mr. Carl Sachse informs me that its nest is sometimes found in inaccessible cliffs
on the Rhine. Mr. H. M. Labouchere writes to me that it has never yet been found breeding
in Holland, but it visits that country annually, arriving from the north-east during the months
of October, November, and December, and repassing it in March or April, when they return to
their breeding-places. Most of the specimens seen there are young birds.

36

Baron von Droste Hiilshoff states that it " arrives in Borkum about September, following
the migrating Ducks, and leaves the island also together with them. From the above-mentioned
time up to the middle of November these Falcons increase here in numbers ; but after that period
they again get rarer, until they quite disappear. The same is again the case in the period
commencing from the middle of February until the end of April."

In Belgium and Luxembourg it is not uncommon ; and Baron De Selys states that it nests in
the Ardennes and the woods of Campine. The north of France is visited by a tolerable number
on each annual migration ; and it also breeds in the mountainous districts and the sea-cliffs. It
inhabits Portugal, where it is said to be generally distributed. Professor Barboza du Bocage
writes to me as follows : — " It has been stated that in Portugal as well as in the south of Spain
the Peregrine is replaced by the Barbary Falcon ; but this is not the case, for all the specimens
I have hitherto been able to examine are referable to F. peregrinus." In Spain it is, Mr. Howard
Saunders states, common throughout the country, breeding in every mountain-range ; and Colonel
Irby writes (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 50), it is "most abundant in Andalucia in winter; but some few
are resident — a pair nesting at Gibraltar, near O'Hara's Tower, and occasionally coming into
the town to carry off tame Pigeons. I think this pair belongs to the small race of Peregrine
which inhabits the coast of the Mediterranean ; but they certainly are not the Barbary Falcon.
The usual average-sized Peregrine, however, nests on rocks on both sides of the Straits about the
21st of March, laying from three to five eggs." In the mountains of Savoy it is resident, but
not common ; and it is generally distributed throughout Italy. In Sicily it is not rare as a
resident, and many pass there on migration. In Malta, Mr. C. A. Wright states (Ibis, 1864,
p. 47), it " appears in spring and autumn, and occasionally at other seasons. I have a female
which was caught in a net on the 26th December, 1860. A young male in my collection was
killed on the 23rd October, 1861 ; and a female was taken alive on the 1st November of the
same year. The Peregrine has been known to breed in precipitous rocks on the south coast of
Malta and Gozo. For several years a pair nested and brought up their young in an inaccessible
cliff near Casal-Zurrico." According to Lord Lilford it is "common in Epirus in winter, where
it is of great assistance to the wild-fowl shooter. Occasionally breeds in the island of Corfu,
where I observed it near Pelleka in April 1857.

Dr. Kriiper speaks of it as being a rare bird in Greece, Macedonia, and Asia Minor, but a
resident; for it has been obtained in the winter, and is known to breed there. There are, he
adds, only three breeding-places in Greece — two on Parnassus, and one on the Parnes mountains
of Attica. In Southern Germany it occurs here and there, and breeds in suitable localities, but
is by no means common. Dr. Fritsch states that it breeds in Bohemia. I was informed by the
late Mr. E. Seidensacher that at least one pair had their nest in the mountains not far from Cilli,
in Styria ; and the Bitter von Tschusi-Schmidhofen writes to me that it is met with throughout
Austria, but everywhere rather rare than otherwise. It likewise occurs in the countries bor-
dering the Southern Danube, Turkey, and in Southern Russia, in which latter country it is,
Professor von Nordmann states, common in the winter, though but rarely seen in the summer
season. Eversmann, who speaks of having heard of a very dark race of the Peregrine in Southern
Russia, states that it is found only in the hilly districts and not in the steppes. As above stated,
it is a rare bird in Asia Minor ; and Canon Tristram, referring to its occurrence in Palestine,

37

writes (Ibis, 1865, p. 257) as follows : — '-The Peregrine, nowhere numerous, occurs at all times
of the year, in all suitable localities, near the coast and on the western slopes of the watershed of
Central Palestine. To the eastward of the crest we never observed it. It extends from the
Lebanon to the south of Jordan. During the winter we frequently met with it as far inland as
Nazareth ; and in the beginning of March I shot a female from a palm-tree in a garden at Jaffa,
where it was evidently, from the state of its lower plumage, incubating. The same restriction of
the Peregrine to the coast-line I have observed in North Africa; but there it is replaced inland
by the Falco Barbaras." Lord Lilford, who says that he has met with the present species in
various parts of Spain, France, Italy, Sardinia, the Ionian Islands, Epirus, and Northern Greece,
adds that he once or twice observed Falcons in the Island of Cyprus, which he can attribute to
no other than the present species.

In Africa it is generally distributed in the northern portion, and has occurred as a rare
straggler in even the extreme southern portion of the continent. Von Ileuglin says that it is
a common winter visitant in Egypt, and ranges, though sparingly, southward on the Nile to
10° N. lat., and is found in Abyssinia and at Kordofan. It is most numerous on the lagoons of
Lower Egypt, where it feeds on the waterfowl which are found there in abundance. Old males
are but rarely seen, females and young birds being usually met with. Captain Shelley thinks
that it may occasionally remain to breed; for he shot one, on the Gth of May, at Aboo Fayda ;
and Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., writes to me that it seems to be commoner in Egypt than the
Lanner, but old males are said to be rare. The stomach of the first specimen he shot contained
grain as well as flesh, and it had doubtless been devouring a duck, from the stomach of which
the grain in all probability came ; and he also shot one in the act of carrying off a Peewit. " 1
shot another," he writes, " which had been making a heavy meal of locusts. Its feeding on
locusts may seem strange to some ; but it is ordained that almost all birds, except the smallest,
should help in keeping down the numbers of this destructive pest, which in times of great
visitation (fortunately rare) will come to a district in such appalling clouds as to threaten
absolute ruin to the poor fellaheen." In North-west Africa it is recorded by Loche as found
breeding in Algeria ; and Dr. Taczanowski states that it is to be met with in mountainous places
and on the borders of the Sahara, but everywhere rare. Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt-Drake states that it
is common in Tangier and Eastern Morocco, and breeds in the mountains ; and Favier also says
{fide Colonel Irby, I. c.) that it is " not uncommon near Tangier, where some remain to breed ;
the remainder are migratory, going to Europe in February and March and returning in November
and December." Both Berthelot and Dr. C. Bolle speak of it as occurring in the Canaries ; and
the latter states that it is occasionally met with at Fuerteventura ; but Mr. Godman never met
with it, nor does Vernon Harcourt refer to it as occurring at Madeira. Mr. J. H. Gurney has
shown me two examples from South Africa — one from Natal, and one from the Cape colony ; and
I possess one from the last locality ; but in this part of the African continent it is extremely
rare, being replaced by Falco minor.

In Asia the Peregrine has also a wide range. It was seen in Persia by De Filippi ; and
Loftus brought a specimen from Southern Persia. Mr. Blanford did not meet with it in that
country; but Major St. John states that a good many are caught in the mountains near the
coast and sold at Bushire and Bander Abbas to dealers from Arabia, but that Persian falconers

38

8

set but little value on this bird. It is found in India, but does not appear to breed there ; for
Colonel Delme-Radcliffe writes (Ibis, 1871, p. 363) as follows: — "I think it is beyond doubt
that no instance of the breeding of this Falcon has occurred within the limits of British India.
My careful inquiries among natives of rank, as well as among professional falconers and bird-
catchers, during a recent sojourn of more than three years and a half in Peshawur and its
vicinity, lead me to believe that it does not breed even so near India as Surat, Bonair, Cabul in
Afghanistan, or in any of the neighbouring hill-countries." Dr. Jerdon says of it (B. of India, i.
p. 23), " found throughout the whole continent of India, from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin,
during the cold weather only. I have found it near Trinchinopoly, and at Calicut, on the
west coast ; and I know that many used to be captured at Ramnad, still further south. It is
abundant all along the east coast, less so perhaps on the west coast, and inland is found in
suitable localities, especially where there are lakes and large rivers, or where hilly tracts occur,
up to the Himalayan range." Dr. SevertzofF met with it in Turkestan, where, he says, it occurs
during passage, but may possibly remain to breed. It has been observed in Siberia by all the
Russian naturalists who have written on the ornithology of that country. Von Schrenck fre-
quently observed it at its nesting-place on the rocky shores of the Lower Schilka, and on the
Upper Amoor, as also once, in the autumn of 1856, on the Tarei-nor. Dr. G. Eadde says that
it is not rare in the Amoor country. On the 8th June he found an eyry at Cape Kada, above
Dshai, in a steep rock, and a month later, when revisiting the same place, he saw the young,
which were fledged. Von MiddendorfF observed it in July on the island of Aehae, near the
south coast of the Sea of Ochotsk ; and Steller met with it in the Kurile Islands. Mr. Swinhoe
states that it is a resident along the whole length of the Chinese coast ; it is also found in Japan,
whence Messrs. Temminck and Schlegel received it ; and it has also been obtained at Hakodadi by
Captain Blakiston, and between Nagasaki and Hakodadi by Mr. Whitely's collectors. Pere David
also states that he has once seen it in Mongolia.

In America it is found throughout the country, from the extreme north down to the
Argentine Confederation. I have examined specimens obtained by Dr. Walker at Port Kennedy,
in 72° N. lat., which are specifically inseparable from European examples; and I have seen many
from various parts of British North America. Mr. Dall says that it is not common in Alaska,
but is found from Nulato to Fort Yukon in spring and summer. It was also obtained by Bischoff
at Sitka and Kadiak. It occurs all along the west coast ; and Mr. G. N. Lawrence (Mem. Bost.
Soc. Nat. Hist. ii. p. 300) says that Mr. Xantus observed the present species at different times in
the vicinity of Mazatlan. He discovered the eyry of a pair early in April 1862, in a cliff on an
island near Mazatlan called Venada, but found it quite inaccessible. In Mr. Salvin's collection
there is a specimen from Veragua. On the east coast it is met with down as far as Chili. I did
not meet with it when in Texas, but was assured that it sometimes occurred on the coast ; and I
have examined examples from Panama and Chili. Natterer obtained it at Praia de Cajatuba,
near Para, on the Amazon. According to Gundlach it is found in Cuba; Professor Newton
obtained it at St. Croix ; and Mr. Gurney informs me that he has seen it from Nevis.

One of the most powerful and active, as well as one of the most docile of the Falcons, the
present bird was, during the time when falconry was in vogue, the species most commonly used
by the votaries of that noble sport — the female Peregrine being exclusively the Falcon, the

9

male being the Tiercel, in the language of falconry. In a wild state it is very bold, and will
attack tolerably large birds; but where waterfowl abound it appears to prey chiefly on Ducks of
various sorts, as well as Gulls and other waterfowl ; and its eyry is frequently placed in a locality
where there is a good prospect of being able to replenish its larder at short notice. So far as I
know, it always chooses the easiest flight, and hence will strike and carry off any weakly bird out of
a flock or covey, thus acting in a manner as sanitary police ; and I fully agree with many writers
who urge that the prevalence of the dreaded Grouse-disease has much to do with the ruthless
(and what seems to me unnecessary) destruction of the birds of prey, thus permitting weakly or
diseased birds to propagate and perpetuate their diseases, whereas, were their numbers kept down
by birds of prey, the diseased birds would be destroyed, and the strong healthy ones alone would
remain to breed. Our game-preservers appear solely to strive to raise as many birds as possible,
and lose sight entirely of the fact that they destroy the balance of nature and thereby defeat
their own ends.

Besides, the Peregrine, when in a wild state, preys largely on Stock-Doves, which have of
late years so much increased in numbers ; and the presence of a few Falcons is in many parts
greatly needed to keep them from becoming too numerous; for they are a great pest to the
agriculturist. It is true that it destroys not a few Partridges ; but it greatly prefers Pigeons if
they are to be had, and many zealous game-preservers assure me that the present species is,
comparatively speaking, but little to be feared as far as the destruction of game is concerned.
Lord Lilford, in some notes lately sent to me, writes as follows : — " Perhaps this is not the place
in which to enter a plea for this my favourite bird ; he kills Grouse and Partridges, and almost
every man's hand is against him ; but in England, at all events, the harm done by Peregrine
Falcons to game is so small that I cannot resist a chance of trying to influence such of your
readers as may be game-preservers in favour of this noble bird. To a gamekeeper a Hawk is a
Hawk, and therefore to be murdered ; but with his master surely this Falcon, which was formerly
the badge of gentility, should have a claim to protection and respect." I fear that it is of but
little use to plead for this beautiful and noble bird ; for wherever one appears it is almost sure to
be shot ; but I feel confident that if our game-preservers would take it under their protection
they would find themselves by no means the worse off from having done so.

In the days when falconry flourished, the Peregrine appears to have been chiefly flown at the
Heron ; and the pursuit of this bird appears to have been considered by falconers of the olden
time the very acme of sport. I will not here enter into a discussion on falconry ; but it may not
be out of place to transcribe the following description of the mode of taking Herons from Sir
John Sebright's 'Observations on Hawking:' — "The Herons go out in the morning to rivers and
ponds, at a very considerable distance, in search of food, and return to the heronry towards the
evening. It is at this time that the falconers place themselves in the open country, down wind
of the heronry ; so that when the Herons are intercepted on their return home they are obliged
to fly against the wind to gain their place of retreat. When a Heron passes, a cast of Hawks is
let go. The Heron disgorges his food when he finds that he is pursued, and endeavours to keep
above the Hawks by rising in the air; the Hawks fly in a spiral direction to get above the
Heron ; and thus the three birds frequently appear to be flying in different directions. The first
Hawk makes his stoop as soon as he gets above the Heron, who evades it by a shift, and thus

4b

40

10

gives the second Hawk time to get up and to stoop in his turn. In what is deemed a good
flight this is frequently repeated, and the three birds often mount to a great height in the air.
When one of the Hawks seizes his prey, the other soon binds to him, as it is termed ; and, buoyant
from the motion of their wings, the three descend together to the ground with but little velocity.
The falconer must lose no time in getting hold of the Heron's neck when he is on the ground, to
prevent him from injuring the Hawks. It is then, and not when he is in the air, that he will
use his beak in his defence. Hawks have, indeed, sometimes, but very rarely, been hurt by
striking against the Heron's beak when stooping ; but this has been purely by accident, and not
(as has been said) by the Heron's presenting his beak to his pursuer as a means of defence.
When the Heron flies down wind, he is seldom taken, the Hawks are in great danger of being
lost, and, as the flight is in a straight line, it affords but little sport."

Professor Newton (who, besides the above, gives, in the edition of Yarrell's ' British Birds '
on which he is now engaged, some interesting details on falconry) remarks that the female
Peregrine is usually flown at Herons and Rooks, and the male, or Tiercel, is more frequently
flown at Partridges, and sometimes at Magpies.

The Peregrine is extremely bold ; and Lord Lilford informs me that he knows few birds that
will face it, the only species he has observed to fight it with success being Nisaetus fasciatus and
Corvus corax. When impelled by hunger, and not unfrequently without even that strong motive
power, the Peregrine will visit large cities to prey on the pigeons. I have known it to frequent
the spires in the city of Moscow and create great devastation amongst the numerous pigeons
which are found in that town ; and Sir John Sebright mentions that they used to frequent London
in the autumn, and that a pair which frequented the cross of St. Paul's were the dread of
pigeon-fanciers.

The nest of the Peregrine is most frequently placed on the ledge of a rock ; but it varies the
position of the nest somewhat according to circumstances. Thus, in Pomerania and the flat
wooded portions of North Germany it appears, as a rule, to nest in a tree ; and Mr. C. Farman
found the eggs of the present species in what appeared to be an old nest of the- Imperial Eagle,
in a large tree near Kialdery, in Bulgaria. Mr. Wiese states (J. f. O. 1855, p. 511) that he
found the Peregrine breeding in trees in Pomerania. The first eggs he took were in a small
scanty nest, not larger than that of the Crow, in a pine tree ; the second lot were in an old
Osprey's nest, in a pine-grove ; and the third lot were deposited in a deserted Kite's nest.
Professor Newton remarks that " in one locality, in Lapland, Wolley found that it bred on the
ground in a large marsh, and eggs from more than one nest in this situation were obtained by
his collectors for several years ;" and Von Middendorff states that in Livonia it nests on the
moors, on the borders of large ponds, in the moss, usually at the foot of some stunted thickly
foliaged bush, but never otherwise than on the ground. Some years ago I obtained four eggs at
Ija, in Northern Finland, which were in a nest placed on a large tussock in the middle of a great
morass. The nest of the Peregrine is generally a somewhat loose and poor structure of sticks
and twigs; and the eggs, usually four in number, are subject to no little variation. Judging
from a series in my collection, the usual (typical) egg seems to be one which, on a dull brick-red
ground, is closely spotted or dotted with reddish brown or darker red ; but some are blotched
and spotted with rich rufous on a warm reddish white or yellowish white ground ; one or two

41

n

are marked with dull light red on an almost pure white ground ; and one is deep uniform brick-
red, with two or three almost black blotches. One from Finland has one end white slightly
marked with rufous, and the other half of the egg is dull brick-red with rather darker markings.
In size they vary from Iff by lf£ inch to 2^ by Iff inch.

The Peregrine, like many others of the birds of prey, exhibits great attachment to a place
it has once selected for the purpose of nidification. I have known several localities where a pair
of Peregrines have for long had their nest: and Professor Newton states (Ootheca Wolleyana,
p. 98) that a Peregrine's nest was found at Avasaxa, in Northern Finland, by the French
astronomer in 1736; in 1799 it was rediscovered by Skjbldebrand and Acerbi ; in 1853 Wolley
found it tenanted ; and I may add that several years subsequently, when I was at Tornea, I was
told by a young Finlander who collected with me, and who had just come from Avasaxa,
that the Peregrine still bred there. Like many others of the Itaptores, if one of a pair of
Peregrines should be destroyed the remaining bird very soon finds another mate. Referring to
this circumstance, Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown, in his notes on the birds of Sutherlandshire, writes as
follows: — "With regard to the fact repeatedly taken notice of by ornithologists, that if one of a
pair of Peregrines, or other birds of prey, be shot or otherwise destroyed, the remaining bird
easily and rapidly finds a second partner, we are inclined to believe that in no case does it do so
without first having a severe battle with its nearest neighbour of the same species. In the
spring of 1869 we knew of an authentic instance in which the Tiercel procured a second Falcon
within two days and a half (it may have been a much shorter time) of that on which he was
deprived of the first. About the same time the Falcon of another pair, from an eyrie about five
miles distant, went amissing; and we have every reason to believe that it had not been shot or
otherwise destroyed, but had supplied the place of the slain Falcon in the above Tiercel's
affections. In a country thinly populated by Peregrines it would probably take a longer time to
secure a second partner ; but where there are, say, from eight to ten eyries not very far removed
from one another there is nothing so very remarkable in the rapid advent of a substitute, though
of course, in order to obtain another partner, the Peregrine would have to conquer a rival in
battle."

There are three forms of Peregrine which, though closely allied to our European Pere-
grine, have generally been considered specifically distinct. The first of these, Falco melanogenys,
Gould (P. Z. S. 1837, p. 139), which inhabits Australia, and is said to extend as far north as
Java, very closely resembles F. peregrinus ; and I am doubtful as to whether it is really specifi-
cally distinct. An adult bird in Messrs. Salvin and Godman's collection, from Brisbane, differs
merely in having the abdomen tinged with rusty red, and in no other respect, from European-
killed examples of the Peregrine. The second, Falco peregrinator, Sundevall (Physiogr. Tidskr.
1837, p. 177), which inhabits India, is, judging from the materials I have at hand, so closely
allied to the third, F. cassini, Sharpe (Ann. Nat. Hist. [4] xi. p. 221) (F. nigriceps, Cassin, partim),
that I am quite unable to discover any true character by which they may be distinguished ; but
both these appear to be fairly distinct from F. peregrinus. They are very much blacker above,
and have the sides of the head much darker than in F. peregrinus, the entire side of the head
being blackish ; and the underparts are rich deep ferruginous closely barred with black. Unfor-
tunately I have not a fully adult specimen of Falco peregrinator; but the one I have before me

4b2

42

12

agrees very closely with specimens in the same stage of plumage of F. cassini from South
America. This last bird inhabits Chili and the Falkland Islands. Falco minor, Bp., is also
closely allied to F. peregrinus, but is much smaller in size. Full particulars of this species will
be given in the present work, as it has been met with in the Western Palaearctic Region.

The specimens figured are the adult and young birds above described, both of which are in
my collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, juv. Crieff, Perthshire (F. Norgate) . b, d ad. Greenland (A. Benzon) . c, d ad. Near Archangel, July 14th,

1874 (Piottuch). d, d juv. Volga, May (H. F. Mbschler). e, 6 ad. Near Stettin, 1860 (H.E.D.).

f,djuv. Malta, October 1861 (C. A. Wright), g, $ ad. Olympus, Macedonia, December 4th, 1869

(Dr. Kriiper). h,juv. Albania (Hanbury Barclay) . i,juv. Near Capetown, South Africa (E. L. Layard) .

j, d ad. Point Lepreaux, New Brunswick, 1864 (A. R. Dresser).

E Mus. Norv.

a, 3 ad. Thetford "Warren, Norfolk, b, ? ad. Aylsham, Norfolk (W. Cook). c,juv. Northrepps, Norfolk
(J. H. G,). d, e, f. Greenland (Holbbll). g, $ ad. Motka Uoma, Lapland (/. Wolley). h. Prance
(Parzudaki) . i, ? ad. Bagnieres de Bigorre, France (Philippe) . j, d juv. Tangier (Favier) . k, ? ad.
Province of Constantine, Algeria (H. B. Tristram). I, $. Smyrna (Guido von Gonzenbach). m. Beyrout
(Mr. Laurella). n, $ . Sakkara, Egypt (Parzudaki). o, juv. White Nile (Parzudaki). p, $ . Natal.
q, 2 ad. Cape of Good Hope ( Verreaux) . r. Tiflis, Caucasus (A. B. Brooke) . s, t, juv. India (/. Gould) .
u, v. India (Mr. Warwick), w, ad. Ceylon (Parzudaki). x, ad. Borneo (J.Dillwyn). y, ? ad. Manilla
(/. Gould). z. Sandalwood Island (Gumming). aa, 6 ad. N.W. Formosa (R. Swinhoe). ab, 3 ad.
Hakodadi, Japan (Captain Blakiston). ac. Fort Kennedy, 72° N. lat., 94° W. long. (Dr. D. Walker,
Naturalist to the 'Fox'), ad, ae, 2jun. Fort Churchill, Hudson's Bay (Capt. Herd), of, ad. Saskatche-
wan river (Leadbeater) , ag, ah, jun. Canada (Mr. Stevens) . ai. Canada (Mr. Hadcraft) . ak, jun.
Hudson's Bay (J. Gould) . al, $ jun. Great Egg Harbour, New Jersey (J. Cassin) . am, ad. New York
(/. W. Backhouse), an, ao, jun. Island of St. Croix, West Indies (A. Neivton). ap, jun. California
(Verreaux). aq,jun. Mexico. ar,jun. Colon, Panama (Mr. Ripon). as, d , at, S jun. Chili (Dr. Lam-
beck). au,jun. Santiago, Chili (Boucard) .

E Mus. Salvin and Godman.

a,b. Fort Rupert, British Columbia (P. N. Compton) . c, ? . Duefias, Guatemala (O. Salvin). d, d . Veraguas
(Arce). e, d . Mendoza, February 1871 (Weisshaupt).

E Mus. Howard Saunders.

a, 3 ad. Near Seville, Spain, April 15th, 1869. b, d ad. Seville, August. c,djuv. Near Malaga, October 9th,
1872. d, d juv. Krain, Hungary.

373

J.G-.Keuleoians lifch.

M&N Hanhart

xmp.

LESSER PEREGRINE.

FALCO MINOR

43

FALCO MINOR.

(LESSER PEREGRINE.)

Falco peregrinoides, Smith, S.-Afr. Q. Journ. i. p. 235 (1830, nee Temm.).

Falco minor, Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. i. p. 23. no. 5 (1850).

Falco communis, var. minor, Sundev. Krit. om Levaill. p. 26 (1857), fide Sharpe, Cat. Accip.

p. 383.
Falco peregrinus, var. cajwnsis, Grill, Zool. Anteckn. p. 48 (1858), fide Sharpe, ut supra.
Falco communis minor, Schl. Cat. Mus. P.-B. Falc. p. 4 (1862).
Falco barbarus, Blanf. Geol. & Zool. Abyss, p. 288 (1870, nee Linn.).

Figura unica.
Sharpe, Cat. Accip. Brit. Mus. pi. 12.

Ad. F. peregrino similis sed valde minor, corpore subtus rufesccnte cervino lavato et fasciis angustioribus et
inter se propioribus quam in F. peregrino notato.

Juv. F. peregrino similis, sed minor.

Adult Male (Smyrna). Resembles Falco peregrinus, but is much smaller; throat and breast white with a
warm reddish buff tinge, the latter marked with drop-shaped black spots ; rest of the underparts greyish
with a pale warm rufous tinge, very closely barred with black. Total length about 13 inches, culmen
l - 05, wing 11-4, tail 55, tarsus l - 8, middle toe with claw 225.

Young (Tangier) . Resembles the young of Falco peregrinus, but is smaller, the upper parts are paler, and
the striations on the underparts are somewhat narrower and more profuse.

Obs. Specimens from South Africa have the underparts rather more rufous than those from other localities
in the series I have examined. Mr. Sharpe (Cat. Accip. p. 384) gives the length of the wing of the
young bird from South Africa as 91 inches; but the adult one in skin (spec, b) from that locality is the
largest I have examined, having the wing 12 - 3 inches long, that of the female from Abyssinia being
rather less.

Specimens from Morocco and Tangier vary in size as follows — wing irO-11'2, tail 5 - 4-5"6, tarsus 1'75-1'8,
middle toe with claw 2"2— 2 - 3. None of these have the sex indicated on the labels, except one, a female,
which measures — wing 111, tail 5 - 65, tarsus 1/75, middle toe with claw 2'25 ; and a female from Rhodes
measures — wing 110, tail 5 - 6, tarsus L75, middle toe with claw 23. Thus it will be seen that, if the
sex is correctly determined, the male from Smyrna, which I have described, is the largest bird of those
from northern localities ; but it would in any case appear that the sexes differ but slightly in size.
One difference between the present species and the Peregrine, which is somewhat striking, is the length
and slenderness of the legs and feet in the present species compared with those of Falco peregrinus. ■

This small representative of our Peregrine inhabits Africa and occasionally wanders into Asia
Minor and Europe proper. Its headquarters appear to be Southern and North-western Africa ;

H

44

and in the former locality it seems to take the place of the common Peregrine Falcon. Mr. Layard
says (B. of S. Afr. p. 19) that it " seems to have a pretty general range over the colony, several
specimens having reached me from different localities. I have likewise seen it on the wing
several times near Capetown, and purchased one in the flesh, which was being carried through
the town by a shooter. Mr. Atmore writes from Swellendam, ' it is not rare about here, but
very difficult to get, except in the breeding-time, when they come after the poultry.' " On the
west side of the continent I find it recorded from Damara Land by Mr. Andersson, who states
(B. of Damara Land, p. 12) that he never observed but one individual, a young female, which he
obtained at Objinere, about two days' journey from Objimbinque; and Mr. Gurney adds that in
Mr. Andersson's last collection there was an adult male of this species, obtained at Ondonga on
the 30th January, 1867. Between here and Mogador I do not find it recorded, except that a
specimen, in immature plumage, from the river Gambia, now in the British Museum, catalogued
by Mr. Sharpe as Falco barbarus, in my opinion decidedly belongs to the present species ; but it
is, so far as I can ascertain, almost impossible to distinguish Falco barbarus and Falco minor in
immature dress. I possess two, and have examined several more, examples of this Falcon from
Tangier, all collected by M. Olcese. When I first obtained an immature bird from there I
believed it to be Falco barbarus ; and Colonel Irby, partly misled by me, included F. barbarus in
his ' Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar ' as occurring near Tangier. Mr. J. H. Gurney
informs me that it is found at Mogador, and he was inclined to regard specimens from there
and from Tangier as belonging to a dark-headed form of Falco barbarus lacking the rufous nape ;
but a critical examination of four examples from Tangier (two adult and two immature), with
specimens from other localities, clearly demonstrates that they are referable to the present
species. Falco minor may possibly occur in several of the countries bordering the north side of
the Mediterranean ; for it has been obtained near Milan, whence M. Jules Vian obtained a
specimen shot late in the month of April.

I possess an example from Rhodes which is just assuming the mature dress; and there is
one in the Norwich Museum, from near Smyrna, in very full plumage. The various authors
who have written on the ornithology of North-east Africa do not record it : but it certainly
occurs there ; for a specimen obtained in Abyssinia by Mr. Blanford is in the British Museum.
On the east side of Africa it has been obtained on the Zambesi and the Joanna Islands
whence specimens are in the Norwich Museum, as also from Natal, where it was procured by
Mr. Ayres.

Respecting the habits of the Lesser Peregrine I find nothing of any importance on record ;
but it appears to assimilate tolerably closely to its larger ally, Falco peregrinus, and doubtless
its breeding-habits and eggs are similar to those of that species ; but the eggs will doubtless run
smaller. Colonel Irby obtained the eggs with one of the specimens I have examined ; but I have
not had an opportunity of examining them.

The specimens figured are the adult male and young bird above described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

45

E Miis. H. E. Dresser.

a, 6 ad., b,juv. Tangier (Olcese). c, 2 ■ Trianda, Rhodes, December 1st, 1874 (C. G. Danford).

E Mus. Lord Lilford.

a, 2 (not quite adult, with eggs). Tangier, April 1st, 1874 (Col. Irby).

E Mits. Nwv.

a, 6 ad. Smyrna (G. von Gonzenbach). b, <j . Cape of Good Hope (Verrequa?). c, ad., d,juv. Natal (Ayres).
e, ad. Zambesi (Dr. Dickerson). f,juv. Joanna Islands, Africa (Dr. Dlckerson).

E Mus. Brit. Reg.

a, ad. South Africa (J. Rocke). b,juv. South Africa (Verreaux). c, 2 ad. Waliko, Anseba valley, Abyssinia,
July 21st, 1868 (W. T. Bhtnford). d, juv. River Gambia (Rev. D. F. Morgan). e, ad. Morocco
(Boiicard) .

H2

46

374

7

J.GKeulemans lith..

M<kN Ha.nha.rt unt*

BARBARY FALCON.

FALCO BARBARUS.

47

FALCO BARBARUS.

(BARBARY FALCON.)

The Barberry Falcon, Albin, Nat. Hist. Birds, Suppl. iii. p. 2, pi. 2 (17-40).
Accipiter falco tunetanus, Briss. Om. i. p. 343 (1760).
Falco barbarus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 125 (1766).
Falco pelegrinoides, Temm. PI. Col. 479 (1838).
Falco peregrinoides, Schl. & Susemihl, Vog. Eur. taf. 9. fig. 1 (1839).
Falco lanarius alphanet, Schl. Abh. in der Geb. Zool. p. 16 (1841).
Falco punicus, Levaill. jun. Expl. Scient. de l'Alg. pi. 1 (1850).
Gennaja barbarus (L.), Bp. Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1854, p. 535.
Gennaja Barbara (L.), Loche, Hist. Nat. Ois. d'Alg. p. 55 (1867).

Bourni, Arabic.

Figurce yiotabiles.

Temminck, PI. Col. 479 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 2. fig. 3 ; Susemihl, Vog. Eur. taf. 9. fig. 1 ;
Salvin, Ibis, 1859, pi. 6 ; Salv. & Brod. Falconry Brit. Isl. pis. 20, 21.

$ ad. supra ut in Falcone peregrino colorata scd pallidior, nucha, saturate ferruginefi nigro schistaceo notata :
corpore subtiis albido, rufcscente cervino tint-to : hypochondriis et abdomine iino vis nigro fasciatis :
subalaribus rufescenti-albidis nigricante fasciatis.

Juv. vix a F. minore distinguenda.

Adult Female (Constantine, Algeria). Entire upper parts as in the adult Peregrine, but paler and greyer,
the head especially being lighter-coloured ; entire nape deep rusty red blotched with slaty black ; under-
parts creamy white with a rufous tinge ; breast and throat unmarked ; flanks and the lower abdomen
faintly barred with blackish ; under wing-coverts warm reddish white closely barred with blackish ; bill,
cere, iris, and legs as in the Peregrine. Total length about 13 inches, culmen - 9, wing ll - 0, tail 5 - 5,
tarsus P7, middle toe with claw 2"0.

Young. Resembles the young of Falco minor.

The Barbary Falcon inhabits Northern Africa, its head quarters being the Atlas range ; and it has
been met with as far east as India. It doubtless straggles now and again to the northern shores
of the Mediterranean ; and I have examined a specimen from Granada, now in the British
Museum, which certainly appears to me to be referable to the present species. Owing, however,
to the close resemblance between the young of the present species and the Lesser Peregrine, it is
necessary to exercise extreme caution in accepting the records of its occurrence in the south of
Europe. Messrs. Degland and Gerbe merely state that it is occasionally seen in the south of
Europe, without giving any specific instance of its occurrence. I find no evidence of its occur-

Y

48

rence in Northern or Central Europe, except that M. Jules Vian says (Eev. et Mag. de Zool. 1867,
p. 176) that he has examined a specimen obtained in the Netherlands in 1857, and now in the
Leiden Museum. Mr. A. B. Brooke states (Ibis, 1873, p. 151) that he obtained a pair in imma-
ture dress on the island of Vacca, in the Mediterranean ; but it appears to me quite possible the
species obtained by him was the Lesser Peregrine; and the bird recorded (Ibis, 1859, p. 159) as
shot in Malta by Colonel Drummond-Hay was doubtless this latter species. In Tangier and
Morocco the present species appears to be replaced, or neaidy so, by Falco minor ; but, according
to Mr. R. B. Sharpe, it has occurred on the Cape-Verd Islands; for he writes (Ibis, 1875, p. 254)
as follows : — " I examined an adult specimen of this Falcon, shot by M. A. Bouvier during his
expedition to the Cape-Verd Islands. He killed it in a lonely gorge in the mountains. A flock
of St. Jago Sparrows (Passer jagoensis) came suddenly in sight, the Falcon following in quick
pursuit." It appears to be tolerably common in Algeria, and was first described from Barbary.
Mr. Taczanowski speaks of it as being the commonest Falcon in Algeria, both in the mountains
and in the desert. Loche states that it is the favourite Falcon of the Arab sportsmen ; and
Canon Tristram, who shot one in December near the Mzab country, says that, besides the
trained birds, he occasionally saw it wild on rocky precipices. Mr. O. Salvin writes (Ibis, 1859,
p. 187) respecting the occurrence of the present species in the Atlas range as follows : — " My
own experience of this bird was entirely confined to the Eastern Atlas, where in some districts it
is by no means uncommon. I had many opportunities of watching the birds, and was present at
the siege of three of their eyries, besides discovering others which were inaccessible. The first
of these nests was in a hole in the eastern portion of the rock of Djebel Dekma. To this nest
for a long time Mahomed obstinately refused to ascend ; it was his first experience in rope-
climbing. Two dollars, however, produced the desired effect ; and after five hours' hard work,
during which we had to employ every available foot of cord, even to our tent-lines, we were
rewarded with three eggs. While the siege was going on, I shot one of the old birds. A few
feet from the nest of the Lammergeyer in Kaifan Msakta was another nest. From this we took
on the 9th of April four eggs just ready to hatch. The parent birds I watched for some time as
they flew anxiously round, but did not shoot one. On the 20th of April an Arab reported that
he had found a nest of ' Boumee ' in Kef Boudjalo, a rock situated no great distance from Kef
Laks. I immediately started to the spot, taking with me Mohamed, my gun, and ropes. A
successful siege was the result ; and I returned to the tents with three eggs and one of the

parent birds The Barbary Falcon brought to England by us (mentioned above as now in

Mr. Gurney's possession) was procured from a rock near the Marabout of Sidi Khalifa Cherif, on
the northern boundary of the extensive plain that holds the salt lake of Guerah el Tharf. Bil
Ghazoum, our interpreter, and Mohamed, our climber, took it and another from the same nest,
about the 8th of May. They had then almost assumed their feathers. Between these two birds
there subsisted a marked difference in size ; and the smaller of the two had, in addition to the
rufous marking at the back of the neck, a light-coloured reddish head. We kept them about
two months, during which time they came to their full feather, the same inequality in size
subsisting between the two. They were doubtless male and female. Unfortunately the male
died during the journey between Marseilles and Paris, and we had no means at hand for
preserving it. The female is now at Catton."

49

In Egypt the Barbary Falcon appears to be rare. A specimen from Sakkara is in the
Norwich Museum ; and Mr. E. C. Taylor says that he saw one at Cairo in January 1864, in the
possession of a gentleman who had shot it the day before near Sakkara ; but he never met with
it on any other occasion. Captain Shelley writes (B. of Egypt, p. 187) that, though a resident,
it is rather rare in Egypt and Nubia. At Edfoo he saw a pair on the 21st of April which he
believes to have belonged to this species; and on the following day he shot a handsome male
specimen on a sandbank near El Kab.

To the eastward the present species ranges as far as India ; for two specimens have
undoubtedly occurred there. Mr. A. O. Hume, who gives (Stray Feathers, i. p. 21) a most
careful description and measurements of these two birds, says, " The male was procured early
in 1872 by Dr. Stoliczka, in Cutch ; the female was shot by F. It. Blewitt, Esq., in the Nursing-
poor district (Central Provinces) on the 16th December, 1869." Mr. J. Scully, who obtained
three specimens in Turkestan, says (Stray Feathers, iv. p. 118) that " it is said to inhabit the
hills of Kiziltagh and Kugiar, and to breed there in summer. It visits the plains of Kashgharin
about the beginning of winter, but not in great numbers. It is said to prey chiefly on Pigeons
(Columba rupicola) and 'Beghitak' {Ft erodes arenarius)."

Bespecting the habits of the present species I find nothing of importance on record beyond
the information given by Mr. O. Salvin, which I have quoted above. It is very highly esteemed
by falconers ; and Messrs. Salvin and Brodrick speak of it as the " beau ideal " of what a Falcon
should be, and a perfect model of strength and speed combined ; for, although smaller by nearly
a fourth than the Peregrine, it has the organs of destruction, such as the beak, feet, and talons,
fully as large, united to longer and more pointed wings in proportion to its total length, in this
respect almost rivalling the Hobby. Eggs of the Barbary Falcon in the collection of Mr. O.
Salvin and in my own collection resemble those of the Peregrine, but are rather smaller in size.

The specimen figured is the adult female above described, and belongs to the Norwich
Museum ; and I take this opportunity of tendering my sincere thanks for the prompt manner in
which it was placed at my disposal, together with the other specimens in that rich collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. Brit. Reg.
a, s . Nubia, b, ? . Sierra Alfacar, Granada, Spain, January 1871 {H. Saunders).

E Mus. Norv.
a, b, ? ad. Province of Constantine, Algeria (0. Salvin). c, d . Sakkara, Egypt (Parzudaki).

E Mus. G. E. Shelley,
a, 6. El Kab, N.E. Africa, April 22nd (G. E. S.).

y2

50

375

^

J.V/Uf del. J.Smit Hth.

Hanliart imp.

L AN NER.

FALCO FELDECGII.

51

FALCO FELDEGGI.

(LANNER.)

Falco feldeggii, Schl. Abh. Geb. Zool. iii. p. 3, taf. 10, 11 (1841).

Falco joeregrinoides, Schlegel, in Susemihl's Vog. Eur. 2nd ed. p. 39 (1841, partim).

Falco lanarius, Schl. Eev. Crit. p. 2 (1844, nee Linn.).

Falco ruiens, Thien. Rhea, i. p. 72 (1846).

Le Lanier hagard, Schl. & Verst. Traite Fauc. pi. 10 (1853).

Gennaia lanarius, Bp. Eev. et Mag. de Zool. 1854, p. 536.

Falco biarmicus, Taylor, Ibis, 1859, p. 44 (nee Temm.).

Falco tanypterus, Konig-Warth. Ibis, I860, p. 122 (nee Schl.).

Falco lanarius groecus, Schl. Mus. Bays-Bas, Falcones, p. 15 (1862).

Falco peregrinoides, Fritsch, Vog. Eur. tab. 2. figs. 1, 2 (1871, nee Smith).

Figaro? notabiles.

Schlegel, I. c; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 2. fig. 2, taf. 5. figs. 1, 2; Salvin & Brod. Falc. Brit.
Isl. pis. 18, 19 ; Schlegel & Susemihl, Vog. Eur. pi. 8 a, ] pi. 9. fig. 1.

Ad. fronte albida : pileo et nucha pallide rufescentibus nigro-fusco striolatis, nucha ima eodera colore notata :
capitis lateribus et gula albis : stria, malari inconspicua, regione circumoculari ct stria per oculos ad
nucharn producta nigro-fuscis : dorso et tcetricibus alarum sordide schistaceo-fuscis cervino-cinereo
fasciatis et terminatis, uropygio et supracaudalibus magis cinereo-schistaceis Cffiruleo-cinereo trans-
fasciatis : rectrieibus pallide einereo-fuscis cinereo et cervino-cinereo fasciatis et albido apicatis : pectore
et corpore subtus albis cervino tinctis et nigro-fusco guttatis : rostro corneo, cerft et pedibus flavis :
iride fusca.

Juv. pileo pallidiore et magis nigro-fusco notato striatoque : corpore supra sordide fusco, plumis baud fasciatis
sed pallidiore marginatis : cauda sordide cinereo-fusca, albido terminate, rectrieibus centralibus haud
fasciatis, sed lateralibus cervino-albido guttatis : gula et gutture albis : corpore reliquo subtus albo
conspicue fusco striato.

Adult Female (Egypt). Forehead dull white; crown and nape pale creamy rufous finely striated with
blackish, the lower nape blotched with brown; region round the eye and an irregular stripe from
behind the eye to the nape deep brown ; moustache small and narrow ; fore part of the back and wing-
coverts dull slaty brown barred and tipped with buffy ash-grey, on the lower back and upper tail-
coverts becoming slaty ash barred with ashy blue; quills blackish, with an ashy tinge on the outer
webs, and on the inner webs barred with white; tail dull brown with an ashy tinge, closely banded with
ashy grey tinged with buff, and tipped with buffy white; chin and upper throat white; rest of the
underparts white with a buffy tinge, marked with drop-shaped blackish- brown spots, these being much
elongated on the breast; under wing-coverts barred and spotted with blackish brown; bill pale horn at
the base, deep horn at the tip; cere and legs yellow; iris brown. Total length about 18 inches,
culmen 125, wing 13 - 3, tail 7"2, tarsus 2'2.

4q

52

Young Male (Tangier). Crown much paler and more marked with blackish brown than in the adult; upper
parts generally dull dark sandy brown, the feathers with lighter margins but without any transverse
bands, except on one or two new feathers on the rump ; central tail-feathers unbarred, and the lateral
ones with only imperfect buffy bands; chin and throat white; the moustache rather broader than in
the adult; rest of the underparts white broadly striped with dark dull brown; legs dull lead-colour
with a yellowish tinge. Wing 11 '6, tail 6'8, tarsus 2'0.

This Falcon inhabits North Africa, and is only of somewhat rare occurrence in Southern Europe.
In Asia it is replaced by Falco babylonicus, not appearing to range further east than Asia Minor.
It does not seem to have been met with in North Germany, Holland, or France. Schlegel
certainly states that there is a specimen in the Mayence Museum, obtained in Germany ; but,
according to Borggreve (J. f. O. 1872, p, 333), the specimen in question is nothing but a young
Peregrine. It is found in Spain, and breeds there. Colonel Irby states (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 51)
that it has been found nesting near Seville ; and I am indebted to Lord Lilford for the following
notes respecting its occurrence in Southern Europe : — " I know but very little of this Falcon in
a wild state, having only met with it once in Andalucia, wdience I have since received skins,
eggs, and young birds alive — and again in the island of Standia, off the north coast of Crete,
where a pair were evidently breeding in April 1875. From the accounts of all modern observers
the Lanner is a rock-breeding species ; but the old falconry books speak of it as breeding com-
monly on trees in the south of France ; and in Andalucia the eggs above mentioned were laid
in old nests of other raptorial birds, in fir trees. I received the skin of an old female, and two
eggs, from a nest off which Lieut. -Colonel Irby had shot a common Buzzard in a previous year ;
this was not far from the Palacio del Rey, on Lomo del Grullo, in the Coto del Rey. We could
not discover the exact site of the nest in the island of Standia above mentioned ; but it was on
the south side of the island, to the eastward of the easternmost bay or harbour. I had one long
and ineffectual shot at one of the old birds as it was in pursuit of a Rock-Dove ; but we observed
them constantly during our three days' stay at this most barren and rocky of islets, and saw them
fiercely attack and drive off a Harrier and a Serpent-Eagle. I have received many Lanners alive
from Mogador, and noticed a very great variety of plumage amongst them, some of the young
birds being of a general colouring much darker than that of an average Peregrine of the same
age, with very deep-rufous markings on the nape, whilst others were of a light-rusty plumage,
resembling that of F. sacer, with the nape-markings of a pale buff colour : these Mogador birds
also varied greatly in size. I have found the Lanner in captivity very docile and tamable, but
delicate of constitution, and requiring great care ; and I do not think highly of their courage or
value from a falconer's point of view, though there is no doubt that the old falconers took many
birds, especially young wildfowl, by means of this species."

So far as I can ascertain, the present species is not met with in Southern France, unless
perhaps as an occasional straggler ; and it is of extremely rare occurrence in Italy. Count Salva-
dori states that a female in his collection was obtained in the market of Rome in the winter of
1852-53, this being, he adds, the only specimen he knows of as having been killed in Italy.
MM. Jaubert and Barthelemy-Lapommeraye cite Malta as a locality where this Falcon is to be
met with, but give no authority ; and Mr. C. A. Wright never met with it there.

It is not included by Dr. Kriiper in his list of the birds of Greece ; but it is not improbable

53

that he may have confused it with the Saker under the name of Falco laniarius. It certainly
occurs in Dalmatia ; for the examples on which its name feldeggi was based were obtained
there by Feldegg, and there is a specimen in the Vienna Museum from the same locality.
Mr. Farman, who met with it in Bulgaria, writes (Ibis, 1S68, p. 411): — "Out here the
Lanner appears to be even less common than the Saker ; but whereas the Saker seems to
affect the wild wastes of down and moorland, the Lanner is more equitably distributed, and is
occasionally to be seen in all parts of the country. I have seen it near the lower lake of Devna,
in the Pravidy valley, and in the neighbourhoed of Shitangick — three localities as dissimilar as
possible. In April 1866 a pair bred among the rocks in the Pravidy valley; the nest contained
four eggs, which my friend Mr. Bohenskil secured for me. They much resemble those of the
Peregrine Falcon, but are larger and more pointed at the small end than any Peregrine's egg in
my possession; the ground-colour is light brown; and they are marked all over with veiy small
spots of a light reddish colour ; in some parts the spots are so close together that they entirely
hide the ground. There is little or no difference between the marking of the large and
small end."

Messrs. Elwes and Buckley say (Ibis, 1870, p. 74) : — " We cannot be quite positive as to
the occurrence of the Lanner in Macedonia, as we could not obtain a specimen ; but we shot
several times at Falcons which, we believe, were of this species. We were equally unsuccessful
in Bulgaria, though we found two or three pairs of Falcons, which no doubt were Lanners, about
the same rocks where Mr. Farman had previously found them. One nest of four eggs was got
in a range of rocks above the Schumla-road station ; and the birds, which we saw distinctly,
screamed in a manner quite different from the Peregrine Falcon, and were certainly not
Sakers."

I find but scant information respecting the occurrence of the present species in Asia Minor ;
but, as above stated, Lord Lilford met with it on the island of Standia, off Crete, and Canon
Tristram writes (Ibis, 1865, p. 257) that it is "by far the most common of the large Falcons,
and universally distributed throughout the rocky wadys on both sides of the Jordan and the
Dead Sea, and as far north as the foot of Hermon. It is a permanent resident, and, as we were
told, reoccupies the same eyrie year after year. A nest of four eggs was taken in the gorge of
the Wady Kelt, near Jericho, on February 29th ; and the Lanner was breeding in four or five
places in the Wady Hamam and Wady Leimun, near Gennesaret, in April. No region is too
desolate or dreary for this noble bird. On the stupendous rock of Masada, facing the Dead Sea,
a Lanner dropped a Pochard Duck on being fired at ; and we also saw a pair at Jebel Usdum,
the salt mountain at the south end of the lake. It seems to avoid the forests ; for though very
common near the mouths of the ravines east of Jordan, we never observed it in the vast forests
of Gilead and Ajlun. It is in high repute among the Bedouins for the chase ; and trained birds
are as valuable as in North Africa. But though we frequently saw it in the possession of Arab
sheiks of high degree, we never had an opportunity of witnessing the sport, as we only met
them on the march."

In North-east Africa, Mr. E. C. Taylor informs me, the Lanner is the most abundant of the
large Falcons, and is a resident. In January 1864 he shot three within a short walk of Cairo.
Captain Shelley, who confirms this statement, writes (B. of Egypt, p. 188): — "Like all the

4q2

54

true Falcons, it appears very partial to the neighbourhood of water ; frequently it will follow the
sportsman on the look-out for wounded game. On the 19th of April I shot a female specimen
in an interesting stage of plumage, from which my description of the immature bird is taken."
According to Von Heuglin " it is more frequently met with in the winter than in the summer.
It frequents groves, such as palm-groves, bare rocky mountains, pyramids, and old temples ; and
in the autumn, when the large flocks of Ducks and Waders arrive, it is seen on the lagoons,
canals, and overflown meadows. It lives singly and in pairs, nesting on cliffs and inaccessible
ruins in March and April."

In North-west Africa this Falcon appears to be tolerably common. Canon Tristram met
with it in Algeria, where, Loche remarks, it is rather more numerous in the southern districts
than on the coast ; and Colonel Irby says (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 51), " according to Favier this
species, which the Moors confound with the Peregrine, is resident, and as common as that
species around Tangier. On the 1st of May 1872, I obtained a female Lanner and three eggs.
The nest was on the rocks near the above town. Two of the eggs were slightly sat on; the
third, much lighter in colour, was addled, which is often the case with eggs faintly marked or
differing from the usual colouring." It appears to be common at Mogador, where, judging
from Lord Lilford's description, Falco tanypterus, Licht., also is probably to be met with.
This species, which is generally considered distinct, differs from Falco feldeggi merely in having
the upper parts darker and more uniformly coloured, the nape rather more rufous; and it is also
smaller in size, and has the scutellee on the tarsi larger.

In South Africa, however, there is a perfectly distinct species of Lanner, Falco biarmicus,
Temm., which differs in having the crown and nape more intensely rufous, and the underparts
almost unspotted in the adult, and of a rich vinous red colour.

In "Western Asia the Lanner is replaced by Falco babylonicus, a species with which I am but
little acquainted, and which appears to differ but slightly from the true Lanner. It is well
figured in 'The Ibis' (1861, plate vii.) from a specimen obtained by Colonel Irby in Oudh ; and
this gentleman gives (Ibis, 1861, p. 218) the following notes communicated to him by Dr. Sclater,
viz.: — "Captain Irby's specimen seems to be referable to a new species or a distinct variety of
true Falcon, most nearly allied to Falco barbarus (cf. ' The Ibis,' 1859, p. 184, pi. 6 ; Falco pere-
grinoides of Temminck), for which Mr. Gurney proposes to use the name Falco babylonicus, the
first specimen of it having been obtained in Babylonia by the Euphrates Exploring Expedition.

" The coloration of F. babylonicus is nearly similar to that of F. barbarus, but generally
lighter, and rather more rufous on the front of the head : the size, however, is nearly one third
greater, being the same as that of F. lanarius of Schlegel. From the latter bird it may be
distinguished — (1) by the absence of the whitish frontal band, the rufous of the vertex
extending forwards onto the cere, and being bordered behind by a broad band of dark slaty
brown, which divides it from the rufous of the nape; (2) by the feathers on the back of the
neck below the nape being bordered with rufous of the same tinge as on the nape ; this
edging is sometimes present in F. barbarus, but never to the same extent in F. lanarius; (3)
by the comparative absence of spots on the upper portion of the lower surface, in which
character it nearly agrees with the Abyssinian form of F. lanarius, which I take to be strictly
Lichtenstein's F. tanypterus. The middle claw of F. babylonicus is longer than that of F.

55

lanarins, in which respect it also approaches to the structure of F. barbarus. Judging from
the partial remains of the immature plumage in one specimen, it would appear that in this
stage the bird most nearly resembles F. peregrinus, in which particular it also agrees with
F. barbarus!''

In habits this Falcon does not differ greatly from its allies, but it is not so bold or powerful
a bird as the Peregrine, and is held in less estimation by most falconers. It is, to a large extent,
a rock-frequenting species, but is also found in groves ; and during the season when the wild
fowl migrate southward it frequents lagoons and localities where these birds are met with.

Amongst the Arabs, however, the Lanner appears to be valued higher than amongst
European falconers ; for Canon Tristram states that they are, when trained, valued at from
£40 to £60. This gentlemen, in his Notes on the Ornithology of Northern Africa (Ibis, 1859,
p. 284), writes as follows, viz.: — "As far as 1 could discover, the Lanner breeds about the Atlas
range, chiefly, if not exclusively, on its southern side, while the Saker is a more truly desert
inhabitant.

"The Arab Sheiks pursue the sport of falconry with all the zeal, skill, and science of the
' noble mysterie ' of our ancestors. The villein who presumed to raise his hand against the
king's deer was not more certain of condign punishment from the Norman, than the plebeian
Sehaur who should dare to cast a Hawk in the Sahara. No Agha or Sheik of high degree ever
moves for war, business, or pleasure unattended by his falconers, who are his confidential
lieutenants. The care of three Falcons is considered sufficient employment for one falconer
with an assistant ; and on the march, one or two of these important personages follow mounted
immediately behind the Sheik, with a hooded Falcon on the wrist and one perched on each
shoulder. The Houbara Bustard is the favourite quarry ; but Eagles, Kites, Sand-grouse, and
(in the case of the Sakkr Falcon) the gazelle afford equal sport to the huntsman. When a
Bustard is descried, the whole cavalcade instantly halt, the Hawk on the wrist is transferred to
the hand of his master, who, attended by his falconers alone, instantly sets off, and, unhooding
his bird, throws him from his wrist towards the Bustard. Much skill is exercised in drawing
the attention of the Falcon to the Bustard before it rises. Should it unfortunately take wing
before its pursuer has poised herself above it, an ill-trained or impetuous bird is very apt to
strike it in the air. This, according to the view of your Desert connoisseur, is a most unpar-
donable and unsportsman-like offence, to be punished with death. A skilful Hawk will at once
rise to a considerable height, then, swooping down, make feints until the Bustard takes to its legs
instead of its wings. The Falcon then poises herself over it while a second is flung off the wrist,
and the two together give chase, the speed of the Houbara being such that a fleet Arab can
scarcely keep up with the pursuit. The poor bird runs along, aiding its speed by a perpetual
fanning with its wings, its head stretched forward like a Corncrake's, and its conspicuous black
and white ruff folded close back over its neck — a pitiable contrast to the proud fellow who was
lately strutting with head erect, elevated crest, and expanded ruff, challenging all comers. The
pursuers hang over him only a few yards above him, and at each effort he makes to take wing
swoop down with a feint. It is considered the excellency of a Falcon to make these feints at
the quarry until it is nearly exhausted, when the fatal swoop is made, and the bird instantly
drops, struck dead by the hind claw having pierced its vertebra?. This manner of hunting is

56

probably practised both to afford more prolonged excitement to the horsemen, but chiefly from
the singular mode of self-defence adopted by the Houbara, and which I have had various
opportunities of observing myself. As the Hawk approaches, the Houbara ejects both from
the mouth and vent a slimy fluid. A well-trained bird eludes this shower by repeated feints
until the quarry's supply of moisture is exhausted ; an impatient one rushes in, and gets his
feathers and whole plumage so bedaubed, that his flight is materially impeded, and his swoop,
when made, is irresolute.

"With a leash of Falcons, two Haggards, and a Tiercel Sakkr, I have known three Houbaras
and a Sand-Grouse or two captured in a day, and the chase was terminated merely on account
of the fatigue of the horses. I was never actually present at the chase of the gazelle ; but it is
very commonly practised, and I have seen a gazelle brought into camp that had been so taken.
This sport requires, however, more birds, and is very dangerous to the Falcons, who frequently
impale themselves on the horns of their prey. It is not uncommon for both pursuer and victim
to fall dead at one mutual stroke.

" In the pursuit of the Sand-Grouse [Pterocles setarius, Pt. arenarius, and Pt. guttatus) no
such dallying is allowed as with the Houbara. The covey rise, the Hawk is thrown off with a
jerk, another and another are thrown in rapid succession, and each singles out his own victim
and strikes him in mid air. But the same Falcon is seldom trained for both sports. The flight
of the Ganga and Chukhah (as Pterocles arenarius and Pterocles setarius are named) resembles
that of the Golden Plover ; and their defence is the very reverse of the method of the Houbara.
They attempt, in wheeling circles, to rise above the Falcon, and, scattering at a great height, often
distract his pursuit ; and unless the Hawk has been unhooded and thrown the very moment they
were flushed they are frequently successful. The education for this chase is by means of a trained
Raven, who wheels in circles over the young bird, tempting him higher and higher.

" The apparatus of African falconers seems to be the same as in the olden time among
ourselves — the same hoods and gloves^ the same care in feeding, and the same quaint remedies
and nostrums. I never was able to discover the breeding-places of the Sakkr, though I have seen
the young birds in captivity scarcely fledged. The price of a well-trained Sakkr or Lanner is
from 200 to 300 Spanish dollars (£40 to £60); and I repeatedly, but in vain, offered 200 dollars
for one. The Sheik considers a Falcon of the same value as a thoroughbred horse, and will
exchange one for the other. No wonder, then, that I found it impossible to obtain a specimen
for my collection. Indeed it would have been a crime of the blackest dye to have shot one had
I had the opportunity. The Arab holds with old Master Latham : —

" ' A Faulcon is a Prince's pleasant sport.

"Tis sport and pleasure delightful to the eye.
Haggard Hawke with mounting Lark to flie,
Amidst your pleasures then take this delight.
Maintain the Faulconer and his Faulcon's flight/ "

As a rule, the Lanner appears to be a rock-breeder ; but, as above stated, it has in Spain
been found nesting in trees, having taken possession of a deserted nest of some other bird of
prey. When nesting in the rocks it is said to make a very slight nest, consisting merely of a
little rubbish collected together, on which the eggs, usually four in number, are placed. I

57

possess eggs taken by Mr. Farman in Bulgaria, from the Fayoom, obtained by the late Mr.
Stafford Allen, and the two eggs, one of which was figured in 'The Ibis' for 1864 (plate iv.
fig. 1), taken on the Dashoor Pyramid on the 3rd April 1S63. Mr. Cochrane, who obtained
these eggs, writes (Ibis, 1864, p. 183) : — " On the 3rd of April following, on my return from a
fortnight's trip down the Kosetta branch of the Nile, the same Bedouin, whom I had asked
to look out for nests for me, brought me a fine living female (Falco lanarius) and three eggs,
which he had taken on the Dashoor Pyramid. The eggs were much incubated, and I unfor-
tunately broke one in blowing it. The Bedouin said he had taken the bird by throwing a cloth
over it at night, and in so doing had broken one of the eggs, which originally had been four in
number. These eggs much resemble those before mentioned. The bird itself was brought by
me to England alive, and is now in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London."

Some of the eggs in my possession closely resemble the one figured in ' The Ibis ;' but others
are considerably darker and more rufous in general coloration.

The specimens figured are the adult female above described, and an adult bird from Tangier,
both of which are in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. If. E. Dresser.

a, 2 ad., b, iS juv. Tangier (Olcese). c, 2 ad. Egypt, d, 2. Tangier, April .'30th, 1872, shot off nest con-
taining three eggs {Colonel Irby).

E Mus. Norn.

a, 2 ad., b, 2 jun. (Surrey Zoological Gardens). c, d, 2 , e, 6 . Tangier (Favier). f, 6 juv. Province of
Constantioe, Algeria (Parzudaki) . g,h,ad. Cairo, Egypt (Parzudaki) . i, k, ad., I, juv. Sakkara, Egypt.
m,n,juv. Egypt, o, ad., p,juv. Nubia (Verreaux). r. Egypt (J. H. Gurney,jun.). s, ad. Mogador,
Morocco.

E Mus. Lord Li/ford.

a, b, 2- Coto del Rey, Spain, March 29th, 1873. c, 2- Tangier, April 15th, 1874 (L. H. Irby). d, e, 6 .
Egypt (E. C. Taylor), f. Coast of the Red Sea (E. Parzudaki).

58

376

-:z**~,

J.WbifdeL JSmitlitk

Ha.xiiia.Tt

imp.

S AKER.
FALCO SACER.

377

j.wdf ad.

J.G.Keulemans Hth.

S AK ER.
VERY OLD BIRD.

5H

FALCO SACER.

(SAKER.)

Falco sacer, Briss. Om. i. p. 337 (1760).

Le Sacre, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. i. p. 246 (1770).

Falco sacer, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 273 (1788, ex Briss.).

Falco lanarius, Pall. Zoogr. Rosso-As. i. p. 330 (1811).

Falco cherrug, J. E. Gray, 111. Ind. Orn. ii. pi. 25 (1833).

Falco milvipes, Hodgs. in Gray's Zool. Misc. (1814).

Falco cyanopus, Thienem. Bhea, i. p. 62, taf. 1, 2 (1846).

Gennaia sacer (Gm.), Bp. Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1854, p. 536.

Hierofalco lanarius (Pall.), C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 25 (1855).

Falco saqer, Heugl. Orn. N.O.-Afr. i. p. 27(1869).

Falco hendersoni, Hume, Ibis, 1871, p. 407.

Ptnigohierax lanarius (Pall), Cab. J. f. Orn. 1872, p. 156

Hierofalco saker (Gm.), Sharpe, Cat. Accip. Brit. Mus. p. 417 (1874).

Faucon sacre, French; Wurgfalke, German; SlagfalJc, Swedish; Balabann, Russian.

Figures notahiles.

Werner, Atlas, Bapaces, pi. S - ?; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 2. fig9. 6, 7; Naumann, Vog.
Deutschl. taf. 23 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 72. fig. 1 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 20 ;
Schl. & Verst. Traite Fauc. pi. 9; Salv. & Brod. Falconry, pis. 16, 17; Hume, Lahore
to Yark. pi. 1.

Ad. fronte, loris striaque obsoleta superciliari albis : pilco et nucha albidis rufescente fusco lavatis et nigro-
fusco striatis : corpore supra cum tectricibus alarum fuscis, plumis rufescenti vcl pallide fulvido
niarginatis : remigibus extus fuscis et intus albis vel cervino-albidis saturate fusco fasciatis : scapu-
laribus et remigibus secundariis intimis nommllis rufescenti fasciatis : cauda fused, rectricibus omnibus
cervino-albo transfasciatis : capitis lateribus albis nigro-fusco striatis : mento, gulfi et pectore albis vix
nigro-fusco guttatis : corpore reliquo subtus albo, abdomine vix et hypochondriis magis nigro-fusco
striatis : rostro corneo, versus basin cseruleo-corneo : cera et pedibus flavis : iride umbrina.

Juv. pileo et nucbi, magis rufescentibus profuse nigro-fusco striatis : corpore supra saturatiore : supracaudalibus
rufescenti et cervino marginatis : rectricibus centralibus baud fasciatis sed fuscis albo apicatis : rectri-
cibus reliquis maculis ovatis cervmis notatis : mento albo : corpore subtus cervino-albido conspicue
nigro-fusco striato et notato : pectore fere nigro-fusco vix albido striato : cera et pedibus pallide
plumbeo-griseis : iride fusca.

Adult Male (Sarepta, March) . Forehead white ; crown and nape white, tinged with rufous brown, and
closely striped with blackish brown ; upper parts generally dark earth-brown or dull brown, the

60

feathers with light-fulvous mai'gins, some of the scapulars and inner secondaries barred with light
reddish brown; quills dark brown on the outer webs and inner portion of the inner webs, with a few
faint traces of light bars ; the outer portion of the inner web buffy white, barred with dark brown ; tail
earth-brown, closely barred even on the central rectrices with buffy white; sides of head and neck
white, sparingly striped with dark brown, the moustachial stripe very faintly indicated ; chin, throat,
and breast white, a few blackish brown spots ; rest of the underparts white, striped, especially on the
flanks, with blackish brown ; bill bluish horn, lighter at the base ; cere and legs dull yellow ; iris dark
brown. Total length about 17 inches, culmen TO, wing 14"0, tail 8'0, tarsus 235.

Adult Female (Sarepta, March). Closely resembles the male, but is larger, the crown is rather darker, and
the central rectrices are not barred, but have only spots on each web towards the end of the tail;
there are, however, slight traces of bars on some of the wing-coverts. Wing 15'7 inches, tail 9 - 7,
tarsus 2*53.

Young Male (Volga) . Crown and nape warm buffy white, very closely striped with blackish brown, the fore
part of the crown showing very little light colour; upper parts much darker than in the adult, the
upper tail-coverts with broad dull rufous and buffy white margins, the feathers on the rest of the
upper parts with dull fulvous margins ; central rectrices without bars or spots, but, like the rest of the
tail, tipped with white ; rest of the tail not barred, but with oval spots, which form indistinct bands ;
chin white; moustachial stripe clearly defined; underparts generally buffy white, very closely and
broadly striped with blackish brown, these stripes on the breast and flanks almost hiding the buffy
white colour; cere and legs pale blue-grey; iris deep brown.

Common in Eastern and South-eastern Europe, the Saker is rarer in the western portion of this
continent, and is only a rare straggler in the northern and central portions. It is also found in
Northern Africa, and in Asia as far east as China.

It has not been met with in Great Britain ; but one occurrence has been recorded in
Sweden, an example having been driven against the cathedral at Lund in a snowstorm prior
to 1810. Von Wright includes it in his work on the birds of Finland, without, however,
giving any instance of a specimen having been obtained ; but it is common in many parts of
Russia. Sabanaeff states that he met with it in the Ural and on the steppes, but it is rarer
there than the Peregrine. In the districts of Kameshloff and Schadrinsk this species alone
occurs. It is common in the Government of Tula ; and, according to Daniloff, it is said
probably to breed in the Government of Orloff. Severtzoff records it as observed annually
during migration in the Government of Voronege ; Bogdanoff states that it breeds in the
valley of the Sura; Kessler remarks that it also breeds in the Government of Podolsk; and
Artzibascheff writes that it is common in the groves on the islands of the Volga. Mr. Tacza-
nowski informs me that it is of frequent occurrence in the Ukraine and Podolia. It is but a
very rare straggler to North Germany; and I do not find any record of its occurrence in France
or Portugal : but it may probably be found in Spain ; for Lord Lilford writes to me as follows : —
" I cannot speak positively as to ever having met with the Saker in a wild state, though I saw
a Falcon on one occasion in Andalucia which I have no doubt whatever belonged to this species.
There is, or was, a specimen in the museum of Cagliari which was killed in the island of Sardinia,
this is the westernmost occurrence of this Falcon in Europe with which 1 am acquainted. I have

61

had several of this species in captivity, and found them very hardy birds, supporting our English
climate well. A fine adult female Saker, which I bought in Paris in 1862, lived with me at
Lilford in good health for eight years without any special care ; this individual was said to have
been sent from Persia ; I have also received this Falcon from Northern Syria." I may remark
that Mr. A. B. Brooke has also examined the specimen in the Cagliari Museum, which was killed
on the banks of the " stagno " of St. Gilla in February 1842 ; and Cara, who obtained it, mentions
having received two other specimens.

In Southern Germany it becomes less rare, and has bred in Bohemia. Dr. Fritsch writes
(J. f. O. 1871, p. 179) that "in 1842 Voboril found this Falcon breeding on the high rocks of
the Moldau, in the neighbourhood of Moran, Letek, and Vetrusic (between the railway-stations
of Roztok and Libsic, north of Prague). He took the eggs and killed the old birds ; and a series
of seven examples in all plumages forms a conspicuous part of his collection. Voboril gives a
full account of this occurrence in ' Rhea,' which article is transcribed by Palliardi in his
' Systematische Uebersicht der Vogel Bohmens.' Since the railway has been built through the
valley of the Moldau, Falco sacer has left this locality. It is said to have occurred in 1850 on
the rocks near Kost, not far from Munchengratz. Palliardi is in error in saying that this bird
occurs almost every year in autumn and spring as a migrant near Fraucnberg ; for I convinced
myself that the specimens in the museum at Fraucnberg labelled Falco sacer are notbing else
but young individuals of Falco peregrinus. An old gamekeeper, who knows the bird perfectly
well from the time of Voboril, asserts he observed this bird again last year near Moran."

There are several Austrian-killed specimens in the museum at Vienna; and Messrs. Dan ford
and Harvie-Brown write (Ibis, 1875, p. 291) that it " is very rare in Transylvania. Bieltz
mentions Falco lanarius, L., as occurring; but from his description we think it is undoubtedly
Falco sacer (vera) that is meant. Herr von Pelzeln has informed Danford that he considers it
much more likely that Falco sacer occurs in Transylvania than Falco lanarius. Both species
have occurred, however, on the Theiss (Zelebor)." It appears to be common on the Lower
Danube, where I have seen it on several occasions. Mr; Farman, to whom I am indebted for
specimens of this Falcon and of its eggs, writes respecting its presence in Bulgaria (Ibis, 1868,
p. 409): — "This noble Falcon, although not so plentiful as some others of its tribe, is in this
country by no means a very rare bird. From April to October it is pretty generally to be met
with on the barren wastes which stretch from Hasique to Kushetchen. AVhether it remains here
during the winter is a question about which I am not absolutely decided ; but I am inclined to
think it does. Some specimens I certainly have seen during the depth of winter ; but they seem
scarcer during the severe cold which freezes the mighty Danube.

"In the spring of 1865 my friend Mr. Robert Barkley, when residing at Shitangick, in
charge of the railway-works in that district, obtained a pair of young Sakers from a nest situated
on a tree about a quarter of a mile from the railway-works at Shitangick. He kept these birds
in confinement for several months, and they appeared to thrive ; but, if I recollect rightly, they
ultimately succumbed to the carelessness of native servants."

Mr. Goebel, who speaks of it as being common on passage in the Uman district, in Southern
Russia, found it also breeding there, and adds that it is by no means a shy bird. In Asia Minor

62

as well as in Greece it is, Dr. Kriiper writes, not so abundant as is generally supposed, and is
more frequently obtained in the winter than in the summer. He is unaware if it breeds in
Greece. Canon Tristram, who met with it in Palestine, writes (Ibis, 1865, p. 258) : — "This
splendid Falcon only came once under my observation in the oak-forests of Bashan, where I
was close to it as it perched in a tree overhead. I did not add it to our trophies, having only
two charges of dust-shot in my gun, for which, of course, it cared but little. It seems to prefer
the wide plains and deserts to the cliffs of the Jordan valley. The Sheikhs of the Bern Sakk'r
(sons of the Falcon) make it a point of distinction to possess several of these birds trained for
the chase of the gazelle ; and the distinction between it and the Lanner is well known to all the
Arabs. None of them seem to be aware of or to recognize the Peregrine of the coast."

In North-east Africa the Saker is much less common than the Lanner. According to
Captain Shelley (B. of Egypt, p. 190) " this Falcon is rather rare in Egypt and Nubia. In 1868
I obtained two specimens — one near Kom Ombo, the other near Sioot. It is called by the
Arabs 'Saker el hor;' and they train it to hunt the gazelle." Mr. E. C. Taylor obtained one
near Girgeh, but never saw it again; and Mr. Blanford writes (Geol. & Zool. of Abyss, p. 289),
" I killed a single specimen at Kelamet, in the Lebka valley, nearly 3000 feet above the sea.
I saw a pair chased by Crows (Corvus scapulatus), and succeeded in shooting one. It has a
remarkably pale head, whitish isabelline with dusky streaks, is dusky brown above, and dusky
with broad pale edges to the feathers beneath, darker on the body and lighter on the head than
in Schlegel's figure. The wing measures 14 inches, tail nearly 8. I saw a very similar specimen
at Lahej, near Aden, which was shot by a friend. Persian and Afghan specimens, Dr. Jerdon
informs me, have darker heads."

In Asia the Saker is found as far east as China. I find but few details respecting its range
in Asia Minor ; but it occurs in Persia, where, according to Mr. Blanford, it is largely used in
hawking ; and he believes that he saw it in Baluchistan. In Turkestan Dr. Severtzoff met with
it in the valley of Tschilik, in the low mountains of Dschalanash, in September. In India,
according to Mr. Blyth, it inhabits the Punjab, Sulimani, and Salt ranges; and Dr. Jerdon
writes (Ibis, 1871, p. 239): — "The Cherrug Falcon visits the Punjab and neighbouring pro-
vinces on this side of the Sutlej in considerable numbers in the cold weather, and is still more
numerous and common all along the northern and western frontier. Many are caught annually
in the Punjab, near Lahore and Umritsir, and also about Ferozepore and the desert country east
of the Sutlej . Near Sirsa I have seen five or six in one morning's ride ; and one or two came
regularly to roost on a tree close by the traveller's bungalow there. I never saw it in Kashmir ;
and I do not think that any are captured there. I had not an opportunity of observing what
this Falcon chiefly preys on; but all the Punjab falconers assert that its especially favourite
food is the large 'Sandha' lizard (Uromastix hardwicki)." Mr. Hume, referring to this Falcon,
says (Stray Feathers, i. p. 152), " I only saw a single specimen of this Falcon in Sindh.
Further north, in the Punjab, in the Ferozepore and Sirsa districts for instance, they are exces-
sively abundant. My single specimen, a nearly adult male, with the wing 14 inches, was shot at
Shahgodria, at the foot of the hills dividing Sindh from Kelat, in the Mehur subdivision of
Upper Sindh. I was always on the look-out for this bird, and not unfrequently shot Falco

6

jugger, by mistake, for it ; but this was the only specimen seen either by myself or any of our
party." Colonel E. Delme Radcliffe states (Ibis, 1871, p. 365), on the authority of the present
Ameer of Cabul, Shere AH, that the Saker frequently breeds in Afghanistan ; and Colonel
Przevalsky (in Rowl. Orn. Misc.), referring to its occurrence in Northern Mongolia, writes as
follows : — " This Falcon was found by us wherever we went, from Kiachta down to the sources
of the Yantze-Kiang ; but it was most numerous in winter in the Zachar country and about the
Koko-nor, which localities abound with alpine hares ; and these, at least in winter, form its
principal food."

In North-west China, Pere David says, the Saker replaces the Peregrine. He frequently
observed it in Mongolia, as well as in Pekin, Chensi, and in Sechuan ; but I do not find any
record of its occurrence further east than the above localities.

Mr. Hume (I. c.) has separated as a distinct species, under the name of Falco hendersoni,
what I consider to be nothing but a very old Saker. The character on which he bases this
separation is the barring of the upper parts, especially of the tail. Falco sacer, he says, has the
central tail-feathers plain or conspicuously marked with from one to ten round or even long-oval
spots, but never has a regularly barred tail, whereas Falco hendersoni, both in old and young
plumage, has the tail regularly and closely barred. To this statement, however, I must decidedly
demur. I have examined a considerable series of examples from various localities, and am firmly
convinced that Falco hendersoni is a very old stage of plumage of Falco sacer ; and this to some
extent explains its great rarity. In my own collection and that of Mr. E. Hargitt all the birds
(shot from the nest and sent with eggs) from the Volga show a tendency to pass into the hender-
soni stage of plumage. Both the male and female above described were shot from the same nest ;
and the former has the tail very decidedly barred, there being also traces of barring on the upper
parts of the body. The female, however, has the central rectrices marked with oval spots and
not barred, though the scapulars and some of the wing-coverts show tolerably distinct barrings.
In the series in the celebrated collection at Norwich the gradation in plumage between Falco
sacer and Falco hendersoni is very apparent. I examined the series there last year ; and Mr.
Gurney has quite lately done the same ; and a comparison of our notes shows that we have
arrived independently at precisely the same conclusions. Five specimens from Tientsin, Oudh,
Syria, Egypt, and the Volga have the upper parts plain and the central rectrices unbarred ; one
from the Volga is intermediate between these and Mr. Hume's Falco hendersoni ; and one from
the Volga, one from Tarsus, and a third from Athens are in the full hendersoni plumage. " In
all the first five specimens," Mr. Gurney writes, " there are some little traces of the commence-
ment of the rufous dorsal barring, in the form of small rufous or fulvous spots on the lower
scapulars, or on some of the wing-feathers, generally the inner secondaries, especially if the
feathers are lifted up to expose the portions otherwise hidden, this being especially the case in
the Tientsin specimen, in which these spots are numerous, though the two central rectrices are
neither spotted nor barred — a circumstance which I consider very indicative of youth."

Judging from the specimens I have examined, I find that, in the very young plumage, the
Saker has the upper parts very dark, the head very closely blotched, and the tail marked with
oval spots, the central rectrices being unbarred and unspotted, and the underparts very closely
blotched and striped. From this plumage it gradually merges into the ordinary adult dress, the

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upper parts becoming paler, the head less blotched or striped ; the underparts gradually lose the
large stripes; and the oval spots on the tail widen into stripes. As the underparts become
whiter the central rectrices assume spots, and then distinct bars, and the upper parts begin to
show barrings, until by degrees the entire upper parts attain bars as in the specimen from
Tarsus, which I have figured ; and then the very old stage of plumage as represented by
Mr. Hume (Lahore to Yarkand, pi. 1) is assumed.

Mr. Sharpe (Cat. Accip. Brit. Mus. p. 417) has grouped this Falcon with the Jer-, Iceland,
and Greenland Falcons ; but this appears to me to be a mistake, for it decidedly has more
affinity with Falco jugger and Falco mexicanus ; and if it should prove advisable to separate the
genus Falco into several subdivisions, I should certainly follow Dr. Cabanis in grouping these
three species together under the subgeneric name of Pnigohierax. In confirmation of this view,
Mr. Gurney points out to me that, like the Saker, the Prairie-Falcon (Falco mexicanus) has the
central rectrices immaculate in the young plumage, whereas in the adult the back and entire tail
are transversely barred as in the very old Falco sacer.

In habits the Saker appears to be more of a plain bird than either the Lanner or the
Peregrine ; and though much employed in falconry, it is scarcely as hardy a bird as the Peregrine ;
but it is said to be more useful in hawking gazelles than any of its allies, as it does not strike
with such force, and less frequently injures itself in its stoop. It is also used to take waterfowl
and hares. In India, Dr. Jerdon says, "it is flown chiefly at the Houbara Bustard (Otis mac-
queeni), also at hares, Kites, and occasionally at the Koolun (Grus cinerea) and the Heron. I
have had several trained for Cranes, and killed a few ; but it is certainly not such a good and
bold bird for that large quarry as the Peregrine. On one occasion I slipped a Cherrug at some
Cranes; and immediately afterwards four or five Sarus (Grus antigone) rose just behind them.
The Falcon came up first with these, and immediately attacked one and brought him to the
ground. On my riding up I found the Falcon clinging to her huge antagonist, who was in vain
endeavouring to shake her off and strike her with his curved claw. I dismounted immediately
and secured the prize. My falconers considered this a great feat. After the Houbara the flight
is often prolonged for two or three miles; and occasionally the Bustard escapes. After hares
two Falcons are often slipped, and manage to secure the hare between them ; but when only
one is used, a dog is generally slipped as well ; and, unless the ground is very unfavourable, it
generally secures a hare after it has been struck three or four times by the Falcon. It not
unfrequently happens that the hare is fairly lifted off the ground by the impetus of the Falcon's
swoop. The flight of the Cherrug after a Kite is very amusing, as the quarry makes extraor-
dinary exertions, by rising to a height and dodging the stoop of the Falcon, to escape her
inevitable capture."

Messrs. Salvin and Brodrick, quoting from the ' Gentleman's Recreation,' a work published
in 1677, state that "the Saker is good also for lesser fowl, as Pheasant, Partridge, &c, and is
nothing so dainty of her diet as Hawks long-winged. This Hawk will make excellent sport with
a Kite, who, as soon as she sees the Saker (the male whereof is called a Sakeret) cast off, imme-
diately betakes herself to and trusts in the goodness of her wings, and getteth to her pitch, as
high as possibly she may, by making many turns and wrenches in the air, which if well observed,
together with the variety of contests and bickerings that are between them, it cannot but be

65

very pleasant and delighful to the beholder. I have known, in a clear day and little wind
stirring, that both the Saker and Kite have soared so high that the sharpest eye could not
discern them ; yet hath the Saker in the encounter conquered the Kite, and I have seen her
come tumbling down to the ground with a strange precipitancy."

The Saker appears to nest chiefly in trees and not in the rocks. I have observed it when
travelling in Bulgaria, but have never had an opportunity of taking its nest ; but Mr. W. H.
Simpson and Mr. Farman, who have found it breeding there, have published excellent accounts
of its nesting-habits. The former gentleman writes (Ibis, 1SG0, p. 377): — "On the evening of
the 29th [April] another fortunate discovery was made by the same party, and, this time, of the
nest of a bird whose eggs, it is believed, were almost unknown previously in authentic cabinets.
We were strolling on a low flat island in the Danube, the edge of which is well covered with tall
poplars and other trees. Opposite this belt of trees, and across the river, the Turkish shore rises
pretty steeply to a level with the plateau of the Dobrudsha, whilst behind, towards the mainland
of Wallachia, there stretches an immense tract of low ground, partly swamp, partly forest, and
partly open plain. A nest of Milviis ater had occupied us for a short time; but on getting close
to the river again, in a place where the trees are very tall, and not thickly grouped, my friend
and cicerone drew our attention to a good-sized nest, which was placed about one third of the
way up a tallish poplar. The nest was resting upon a large branch close to the bole of the tree,
and appeared exceedingly easy of access. Whilst my friend was climbing towards it, the bird
slipped off, and was shot immediately. It proved to be a female Falco sacer. Of this I was not
quite certain at the time, being then unacquainted with the distinctions between Falco lanarivts
and Falco sacer, though the size inclined me to decide in favour of the latter. The nest was not
very much larger than those of the numerous Hooded Crows we had already examined, but was
deep and comfortably lined, appearing, however, from the outside as like a large Crow's nest as
one bundle of sticks is like another. The eggs, four in number, were slightly incubated. In
size they seem to be intermediate between those of the Peregrine and Gyr-Falcon, being, how-
ever, longer in proportion to their breadth. Two of them are light in colour, the other two
much darker. One of the latter is accurately represented in the accompanying plate (plate xii.
fig. 1). It measures 2 - 2 inches by 1-6 inch.

" The male bird was well observed shortly afterwards. Sitting, utterly motionless, on the
top of a dead tree, with his head turned over his shoulder, he seemed so mournfully conscious of
the catastrophe which had befallen his family, that I felt utterly ashamed of having added
murder to robbery in my desire to possess myself of an unknown bird. If the gun had still been
in my hand I could have shot him easily, as he then seemed indifferent to his fate ; but it so
happened that he flew away before that weapon actually arrived, and thus escaped being involved
in the ruin of his household."

Mr. Farman writes (I.e.): — "The following year (1866) I had the good fortune to be
residing at Shitangick, and I carefully watched the habits of this species. Towards the middle
of March I observed two pairs of these Falcons frequenting the neighbourhood ; and at the end
of the month I found one of these pairs were repairing the old nest, from which Mr. R Barkley,
the preceding spring, had taken the young. In the first week of April I found the nest of the
second pair, at a distance of about two miles from that of the first. The nest was placed on a

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solitary tree, in close proximity to which there was a little corn growing ; but the general cha-
racter of the surrounding country is that of wild undulating moors, with a few shrubs at long
intervals, and an occasional tree or two.

" On approaching within about two hundred yards of the place, one of the birds flew from
the tree in an anxious manner, as though leaving the nest, and I was much disappointed at not
being able to get a shot at it. However, I ascended the tree ; and when within a few feet of
the nest, off flew another bird, at which of course I was unable to shoot. I found the nest quite
finished, but no eggs in it. It was about eighteen inches in external diameter, neatly put
together ; and, unlike most Falcons' nests, it was by no means flat, but, on the contrary, was
much hollowed in the middle in the form of a bowl ; it was composed of large sticks at the base,
the upper part being made of smaller and more pliable twigs, and lined inside with tender twigs,
a little coarse grass, and a few pieces of wool interwoven together.

" On the 12th of April I again paid a visit to this nest ; but this time I took a friend with
me, being determined, if possible, to secure one of the birds. We approached very stealthily
and quietly to within about one hundred and fifty yards of the tree, when, as before, one of the
parent birds left the tree. Being, however, mindful of what happened on my former visit, I
kept myself in readiness for the other bird. On coming to the foot of the tree, we stationed
ourselves one on either side of it, shouted and made a great noise, but all to no purpose ; no
second bird appeared, nor could I distinguish any thing like a bird on the nest. I began to
think that the birds had been too wise to trust again to their former device ; however, to make
quite sure of the fact before ascending the tree, my friend fired, when to our no little surprise
out flew a bird like an arrow; and, as it came my way, I had the satisfaction of bringing it
down. On ascending the tree I found that the nest contained two eggs, which, with the female
bird I had shot, I brought away with me, being well satisfied with the result of my morning's
walk.

" The eggs are of a slightly elongated oval form, and differ from the generality of Falcon's
eggs in being decidedly more pointed at the smaller end. The two eggs taken by me from the
same nest, as before described, are similar in form ; but they differ much in markings : of one the
ground-colour is light red covered all over with small spots and blotches of bright red, the
blotches being larger and darker at the larger end ; the other egg has a ground-colour of dirty
reddish white, covered with small spots and rather larger blotches of a dirty red, the blotches
being fewer, larger, and more distinct than on the other egg."

In my collection are eggs of this Falcon from Bulgaria and the Lower Volga, which vary
considerably in colour and markings, some having the ground-colour white clouded and blotched
with rufous, and others are dull red or pale red spotted with dark red. One very handsome
specimen is boldly blotched with deep red on a white ground, the blotches collecting chiefly in
a band round the centre of the egg; and another is as dark and closely marked as a dark
Peregrine's egg. In size they vary from 2 inches by Iff to 2\% by Iff inch.

The specimens figured are : — on the one Plate an ordinary adult female in the foreground,
and a young male in the background ; and on the second Plate the very old bird. This Plate
is copied from an original watercolour drawing by Wolf of the specimen from Tarsus, which lived
for some time in confinement in the Zoological Society's Gardens, and which was referred to by

6 t

Bree (B. of Eur. i. p. 32). Mr. J. H. Gurney, for whom the drawing was made, has kindly lent
it to me for the present work.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. II. E. Dresser,
a, d. Bulgaria; July 1865 (Farman). b, d, c, 2- Volga, March (Moschler). d, d juv. Volga (Moschler).

E Mus. Norv.

a, ad. Athens (Parzudaki). b, ad. Tarsus (Mr. Barker). c, d, d juv. Near the mouth of the Volga
(M. Lefevre). e, 2 juv. Volga (Verreaux). f, 2- Syria (Verreaux). g, 2. Egypt (Verreaux). It, juv.
Moradabad (F. Barr), i, 2. Tientsin, China (Sivinhoe).

68

378

ffi : "?T,-.-'

HOBBY.
FALCO SUBBUTEO

379

FALCO SUBBUTEO.

XXVIII.

6JJ

FALCO SUBBUTEO.

(HOBBY.)

Falco subbuteo, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 127 (1766).
Falco barletta, Daud. Traite d'Orn. ii. p. 129 (1800).
Hypotriorclris subbuteo, Boie, Isis, 1826, p. 976.
Falco hirunclinum, Brehm, Yog. Deutschl. p. 65 (1831).

Le Hobereau, French ; Baum-Falke, Lerchen-FalJce, German ; Boomvalk, Dutch ; Lwrkefalk,
Blaafalk, Danish ; Ldrkfalk, Swedish ; Leivohaukka, Finnish ; Tscheglok, Russian ;
Loclolajo, Italian ; Albanedda cli Passa, Sicilian ; Alcotan, Spanish ; Falcao vagarote,
Portuguese ; Bieo, Maltese.

6 ad. supra schistaceus, pileo et interscapulio saturatioribus, uropygio et scapularibus posticis purioribus,
cinereis : capite summo vix brunnco lavato : loris et supercilio fulvcsccntibus : torque nucbali inter-
rupts ferruginea, : plumis orbitalibus, rcgione parotica cum genis antice nigris, bis strigam malarem
distinctam formantibus : tcctricibus alaram schistaccis, dorso concoloribus : rcmigibus nigris, intiis
versus basin rufo transfasciatis, primariis seliistaceo lavatis, sccundariis ciucrcis, uropygio concoloribus,
scapis distincte notatis : cauda, schistacca, pcunis omnibus, duabus mediis execptis, rufo transfasciatis
et terminatis : gutture toto et collo latcrali lactescenti-albis, vix f'crruginco tinctis : pectore toto albido
ferrugineo lavato, ubique lineis brunncis lanceolatis striolato, hypocbondriis distinctius notato : abdo-
mine imo et cruribus pallide fcrrugincis, vix castaneis, immaculatis : tectricibus subalaribus fulvesccnti-
albis, brunneo irrcgulariter notatis : rostro ad basin flavo, versus apicem indigotico : cera et regione
orbitali flavis : pedibus flavis, unguibus nigris : iride brunncfi.

$ ad. mari similis, seel paullo robustior : vix tarn la;te colorata : plaga nucbali albida : subtus albida, nigro late
striolata : cruribus ferrugineis, nigro anguste lineatis.

cJ juv. nigricanti-scbistaceus, plumis dorsalibus auguste fulvo marginatis, uropygio fulvo latius marginato :
tectricibus alarum dorso concoloribus et eodem modo fulvo marginatis : pileo saturate nigricanti-schis-
taceo, plumis obsolete fulvo marginatis : torque nucbali indistincte maculis albis indicata : gutture
toto cum collo laterali et abdomine imo fulvescenti-albis : pectore fulvescenti-albo, ubique maculis
lanceolatis nigris lineato : cruribus vix rufescentibus, nigro longitudinaliter notatis.

3 jun. similis prtecedenti, sed diversus corpore superiore scbistaceo-nigro, plumis late fulvo marginatis, uropygio
rufescente conspicue transfasciato : subtus pallide fulvescens, pectore superiore brunneo irregulariter
maculato, parte ima indistincte striolata : cruribus pallide rufescentibus, nigro lineatis.

Adult Male. Above dark slaty grey, clearer on the rump and upper tail-coverts, and deepest on the head,
where there is also a slight tinge of brown ; lores, a distinct eyebrow, and an ill-defined nuchal collar
huffy white, inclining to ferruginous on the latter ; a moustachial stripe, fore part of the cheeks, and
ear-coverts dark slaty-grey like the head ; hinder part of the cheeks and sides' of the neck creamy
white, strongly tinged with rufous ; wing-coverts slaty grey; quills black, the inner web irregularly
marked with transverse rufous bars, the primaries slightly washed with grey, the secondaries being

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70

entirely of the latter colour, the shafts distinctly indicated ; tail slaty grey, the shafts of the two
middle feathers brown, those of the rest rufous, all but the two central rectrices barred on the inner
web and tipped with ferruginous ; under surface of the body creamy white, everywhere tinged with
rufous, the entire throat unspotted, the breast covered with very distinct longitudinal black markings,
more thickly distributed on the flanks ; the axillary plumes transversely barred with buffy white and
dark brown; lower part of the abdomen, leg-feathers, and under tail-coverts rich rust-red; under wing-
coverts buffy white, longitudinally marked with black; bill light blue-black at the point, yellow at base;
cere yellow; bare space round the eye yellow; legs yellow; claws black; iris brown. Total length 11 "6
inches, culm. - 7, wing 1O0, tail 6'0, tarsus l'l.

Adult Female. Exactly similar to the adult male, but much larger, and not so richly coloured on the
cheeks, nuchal patch, and throat ; the breast is more thickly covered with black stripes than in the
male ; the leg-feathers and under tail-coverts marked with longitudinal brown shaft-stripes ; the under
wing-coverts thickly mottled with black and white, as also are the axillary plumes, which are covered
with little round spots. Total length 12'5 inches, culm. 07, wing 10 - 8, tail 6"2, tarsus T25.

Young Male. Above brown, the head mottled, and all the other feathers on the upper surface edged with
fulvous, which becomes rufous on the lower part of the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts; quills
blackish, the primaries edged with fulvous, the secondaries more broadly; tail greyish brown, the
middle feathers indistinctly waved with blackish, all the other feathers more or less distinctly barred
with rufous and tipped with fulvous ; the forehead and back of the neck fulvescent, the latter indicating
an indistinct nuchal band ; feathers in front of and below the eye and ear-coverts, as well as a mous-
tachial stripe, brownish black ; cheeks, sides of the neck, throat, and upper part of the breast fulvous
white ; breast fulvous white, blotched all over with brown, becoming striped on the flanks and lower
breast ; lower part of the abdomen and under tail-coverts fulvous, the thighs rather inclining to rufous,
with a few longitudinal brown markings on the outside of the leg ; under wing-coverts fulvous white,
barred transversely with brown.

Another young specimen, preserved (like the former) in Messrs. Salvin and Godman's collection, is apparently
somewhat older, and is greyish black above, with a few faint markings on the feathers of the back,
more distinct on the rump, where, however, there is none of the rufous tinge noticed in the foregoing
example ; the head is blackish brown, with very narrow obsolete fulvous edgings to the feathers ; the
wing-coverts coloured exactly like the back ; quills blackish, the secondaries tinged with grey, all the
feathers tipped with fulvous ; tail greyish above, differing from that of the previously described bird in
being all grey, thus showing that this colour is gradually assumed in the young bird without a moult,
as the other example had just a tinge of grey appearing irregularly on the centre tail-feathers; all the
rectrices, except the two centre ones, barred with rufous and tipped with fulvous ; the lores and eye-
brows fulvous, but not so distinctly marked as in the younger specimen; on the other hand the nuchal
band is more clearly indicated ; sides of the neck, throat, and abdomen fulvous white, almost buff; the
rest of the under surface of the body of the same colour, but very broadly and distinctly streaked with
black; thighs inclining to rufous, with a few little black streaks, as also are the under tail- coverts ;
under wing-coverts strongly mottled with fulvous and black.

The range of the Hobby appears to extend over the entire Palsearctic Region, from the extreme
west to the far east. It is more common in the southern countries of Europe, becoming gra-
dually rarer in Siberia, until in the far east of Asia it only occurs as an occasional migrant.
Like the Kestrel it seems to be an unsettled species, though not sedentary in so many localities

71

as the last-named bird. A great many Hobbies winter in Southern Europe ; and, like both
species of Kestrels, the full tide of migration seems to emanate from South-eastern Europe
and the little-known regions of South-western Asia. Thence in winter the Hobby visits India,
North-eastern Africa, and more rarely Western and Southern Africa.

In Great Britain the keeper's gun everywhere prevents the Hobby from becoming a settled
resident ; and the havoc created among those which used always to migrate to this country has so
thinned the numbers that the bird is fast becoming a rare summer migrant. Where only a few
years ago the Hobby bred regularly, it is now scarcely seen. We have been favoured with
several notes from kind friends in this country, which we print entire, knowing the interest that
is felt by all in this beautiful little Falcon. Most of these letters tell a sad tale of slaughter and
extermination ; and the present generation will, we fear, live to find the Hobby classed as one of
the rarer British birds.

In Great Britain its distribution during the breeding-season is thus given by Mr.
More : —

" A scarce bird in all the districts where it breeds. Though noticed by Dr. Moore as
breeding in Warleigh woods, the Hobby is not included in any of the recent lists which I have
received from Devonshire ; nor have I any record of its nesting in Wales. It seems to be more
frequent in the south-eastern and midland counties of England, its distribution thus resembling
that of the Nightingale." It is doubtful whether it ever remains with us through the winter,
though Mr. Stevenson mentions one having been shot in February and two in March (one of
of these probably having been compelled to stay by reason of a wound). Mr. Sterland, however,
in the ' Birds of Sherwood Forest,' states that he has only met with the bird in winter, which is
pretty strong evidence that the species, if unmolested, would take up his residence here.

In Norfolk the Hobby is a regular summer migrant, according to Mr. Stevenson ; and that it
used to breed in Suffolk is proved by the fact that Mr. Wolley's collection contained two eggs
from Burnt Fen, Middenhall, Suffolk, and two from Benacre, in the same county. Three eggs
from the New Forest are also recorded in the ' Ootheca Wolleyana,' by Professor Newton.

In Messrs. Salvin and Godman's collection are two very interesting specimens of the immature
Hobby, bred in Essex.

Mr. H. J. Elwes writes to us : — " I was informed by the late Mr. Spalding, of Westleton,
that a pair of Hobbies bred for five or six consecutive seasons in a wood called Palmer's Grove,
near Broon, in Norfolk. They laid always three eggs in an old Crow's nest, and commenced
incubation about the 10th of June. A set of the eggs are now in my collection." The Hobby
still occurs every summer in the immediate neighbourhood of London. Lord Lilford mentions
the fact of his receiving two, which we saw before they were sent off to Lilford ; and Sharpe has
another in his collection, caught near Epping Forest in the middle of June, 1870, about the same
time that Lord Lilford's two specimens were captured.

Mr. F. Bond writes to us : — " The Hobby I have obtained two or three times at Kingsbury ;
the particulars of the last one are in Harting's ' Birds of Middlesex.' I have shot it in Stafford-
shire, and have eggs from Dorsetshire and Cambridgeshire."

The Rev. O. P. Cambridge has told us that till within a few years he knew of the Hobby

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72

nesting regularly in Dorsetshire ; and in Mr. Brooking Rowe's book, which he has kindly sent
us, we find it stated that in Devonshire it is ' scarce ; has been noticed as early as March ; bred at
one time in the woods at Lydford, where they were said to be very numerous.' "

In Gloucestershire, Mr. Elwes says, it is rare, and he only knows of one instance of its
breeding near Cheltenham.

From Cornwall Mr. Eodd records it. He says that in " this country it is a rare summer
visitor. One killed by the Trebartha keeper, on the Bodmin moors, a few years since ; another
at Greston wood, near Launceston."

Further north the Hobby gradually becomes scarcer, though we are informed by Lord
Lilford that near Lilford, until within the last few years, " the Hobby used to be tolerably
common, and bred annually within a few miles till about fifteen years ago. I have not seen
more than four or five, to make certain of, during the last ten years. I cannot state with any
certainty the date of their appearance in the spring; but it was no uncommon thing to see
several individuals in a day's partridge-shooting in September, till the years 1856-57-58."

Mr. George Cavendish Taylor informs us that in September 1866 he found a brood that
had been raised in a wood a few miles distant from Rugby, in "Warwickshire, and obtained a
specimen.

Dr. Tristram sends a note : — " Falco subbuteo is very rare in the north of England. I only
know of two examples in Northumberland, one of which was picked up dead by myself on the
Farn Islands, having been caught on the lighthouse the day previous by Grace Darling's father,
who had clipped one wing."

Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., writes: — "As regards the occurrence of the Hobby in Durham, I
can tell you that Mr. Newby has a male, which was shot from a boat at Newport, by a Mr. Wyatt,
on the 14th of June, 1849. Mr. Hogg mentions another, shot near Norton (App. to Brewster's
' History of Stockton') ; and Mr. Hancock has a third, shot at Streatham Castle. In Wallis's
'History of Northumberland' (p. 150), it is stated, probably on Wingate's authority, that the
Hobby breeds, but is a bird of passage, and very scarce."

Sir William Jardine, writing in 1836, did not know of any authentic instance of the Hobby
having been obtained in Scotland ; but our friend Mr. A. R. Alston informs us that it " has been
met with occasionally in the south of Scotland. Mr. R. Gray says that it has occurred in the
counties of Dumfries, Roxburgh, and Kirkudbright."

According to Messrs. Baikie and Heddle, the present species is " seen in Orkney every
summer, but always leaves about the end of autumn. One was killed near Kirkwall in 1845, so
late as the 29th of October. It preys chiefly on small birds, but will occasionally attack even
a grouse."

It has once only been obtained in Ireland, according to Thompson.

In France, Degland and Gerbe record the Hobby as common, particularly in the north.
Lord Lilford also writes to us : — " It is tolerably common, and breeds in many parts of France.
I have heard of it in abundance near Chalons-sur-Mame ; and it is occasionally found near
Angers; in the neighbourhood of Amiens I have also seen it."

Jaubert and Barthelemy Lapommeraye also say it is " very common in the south of France
during the season of migration, and sometimes remains over winter, but seldom breeds here."

73

Bailly observes: —

"The Hobby is sedentary and very common in Switzerland and Savoy, particularly during
the early part of October. At this time many specimens of both young and old birds arrive
from the north of Europe, and remain for a time with us before the severe winter sets in,
when they proceed to the south."

Godron says it passes Lorraine in September ; and De Selys-Longchamps remarks that in
Belgium it is seen " during migration in August and September. It is found then in the small
groves. It repasses in the spring. It is rare.''

De la Fontaine states that in Luxembourg " the Hobby occasionally breeds with as.
M. Mohimont informs me that in 1841 he saw in the possession of a lad at Lahage, in the
commune of Bellefontaine, canton of Etalle, two young Hobbies taken there."

In Holland, Mr. H. M. Labouchere tells us, the Hobby breeds in small numbers in the
southern provinces, but is nowhere common.

In Germany it is a regular summer migrant ; and, according to Kjicrbolling, it is " pretty
common in Denmark, arriving in April and leaving with the Larks in September and October."

Nilsson observes : —

"This Falcon belongs more to the south than to the north of Scandinavia. In Skane it
may be noticed in many of the woods and groves, and is there the commonest Hawk. It is also
found on Oland and in the southern part of Norway, and is common near Gothenburg, but is not
seen in the north of our peninsula. It inhabits the woods in the flats in preference to the
hill-country, and frequents the edges of such woods, groves, and large gardens near the fields
where small birds are to be found. . . . With us it is a migrant, departing late in September,
October, or early in November, in company with Finches, Sparrows, and other small birds, which
leave us in flocks ; and it returns with them in spring, between the 20th and 30th of April or early
in May. Occasionally one or two remain with us over the winter."

Mr. R. Collett says that it is found near Christiania in the summer, although not numerous,
and breeds there, always using deserted Crows' nests. It arrives early in April, and leaves late in
October.

Meyer records it as common in Livonia.

Along all the countries of the Mediterranean the Hobby is more or less abundant. In Spain,
says Mr. Howard Saunders, " this species does not appear to be very numerous, though generally
distributed. Lord Lilford informed me that it was certainly nesting in the pine-woods of Coria
in May ; and this year I received the eggs from that locality."

Machado says it inhabits the plains of Andalucia, appearing in February and leaving in the
autumn.

Major Irby also sends us a note to the effect that the Hobby arrives in Southern Spain early
in May, and breeds in Andalucia, but is not very common, being more a passing migrant.

The Eev. A. C. Smith, in his paper on the Birds of Fortugal, says : — " Falco subbuteo is
also pronounced to be tolerably common ; but I did not meet with it, whether alive or in the
museums."

Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake, writing on the Birds of Tangier and Eastern Morocco, says : —
"I saw this bird twice near Cape Negro;" and Dr. Tristram, in his essay on the Ornithology of

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6

Northern Africa, says it is " migratory in the desert, halting in the Dayats, apparently on its
passage south."

Loche observes : —

" The Hobby, which the Arabs, together with all the small Hawks, call el 'Aram, is met
with in larger numbers in all three provinces of Algeria than the preceding species (F. eleonorce
and F. concolor), with which it is often confounded, sex, age, and season of the year causing
great variation in its plumage."

Dr. C. Bolle says the Hobby is " found here and there on all the Canary Islands, but is rare.
It is probable that it prefers the two most eastern islands, as on these are Skylarks, which form
its favourite prey."

In Malta, Mr. C. A. Wright states that it is " not uncommon in spring and autumn. As is
the case with nearly all the birds of passage, the Hobby is much scarcer in some years than in
others. In the autumn of 1862 I could not obtain a single specimen."

Count Salvadori records it from Sardinia as a bird of passage, and, with regard to its occur-
rence in Italy, writes to us as follows : —

" This bird is rather common in Italy during the migration-season, both in spring and
autumn. A few are also to be found in winter ; and it is probable that some couples breed here ;
but I have not been able to ascertain this fact personally."

In Sicily Professor Doderlein, of Palermo, states that it is very common on the vernal
migration, though somewhat less so in autumn ; a few pass the winter in the wooded district of
the centre of the island.

" The Hobby," says Lord Lilford, " is common in Corfu in spring and autumn. I have an
immature specimen which was shot by an officer of the 3rd Buffs on the roof of Fort-Neuf
barracks, at Corfu, in April 1867. I saw a Hobby near Cettinje, the chief town of Montenegro,
in August 1857."

Lindermayer, in his ' Vogel Griechenlands,' observes : —

" Although this beautiful Falcon is to be seen throughout all the year, both on the mainland
and on the islands, I have found it commoner in spring and summer in Northern Greece, evidently
migrating from the south to the north to breed in the peaceful forests of that region. I have
observed that it is never seen in such large numbers in the autumn as in the spring, and believe
that this arises from many old birds taking with their broods another road to their winter-quarters
than the one by which they had come in the spring."

In Crete the Hobby is believed not to occur, as, according to Colonel Drummond-Hay, its
place is here taken by F. eleonorce. It is certain that it is not a common bird in Egypt, neither
Captain Shelley nor Mr. E. Cavendish Taylor having ever met with the bird in this country.
Dr. von Heuglin writes as follows : — " Occurs rarely, and only as a straggler during the winter,
in Egypt. Brehm speaks of one shot in April 1849 near Damietta. I shot one in January 1856
near Cairo, and again early in June 1852 in a mimosa wood near Siut. In August 1852, near
Donguolah, I saw a Falcon fly past me, which was undoubtedly a Hobby. Brehm's Falco
gracilis in the Berlin Museum, killed on the Blue Nile, is also nothing but Falco subbuteo." In
Palestine Dr. Tristram says it is only a " summer visitant, and rather late in its return ; confined,
so far as we observed, to the wooded districts, and resorting to the olive-yards and open glades."

75

Messrs. Elwes and Buckley write : —

"A very common summer visitor to Turkey, where it arrives about the second week of April,
and frequents the groves of trees which are found here and there in the open country."

Mr. C. Farman, in his paper on the Birds of Prey of Central Bulgaria, says, "This elegant
little bird, excepting only the Kestrel, is undoubtedly the commonest of all the Hawks in
Central Bulgaria. It is to be met with in all parts of the country, but it appears to affect par-
ticularly the barren moors to the eastward of Shumla. In the autumn they seem to be more
plentiful than at any other time of the year. The Quail, to which they appear to be particularly
partial, may perhaps attract them to this locality at this particular season of the year."

Messrs. Alleon and Vian write : —

"Perhaps the commonest of its congeners during migrations, but particularly in the autumn,
when it arrives with the Quails. It passes almost without interruption from about the 10th of
September to the 20th October. We have generally found in the stomach remains of Quails
and small birds, sometimes grasshoppers and large insects ; but, apparently, those that feed on
insects are generally thin, and are more often young birds in the rear of the great stream of
migration ."

Dr. Eversmann writes : —

"Very common in the Vorgebirge and neighbouring steppes of the Ural, as also of
the Altai."

Dr. Radde found it in Eastern Siberia, and states that an old male procured there differs
only from the European bird in having a light yellowish tinge on the under parts.

Dybowski and Parrex record it from Darasnn, in Dauria, stating that it is " rarer than the
Kestrel in summer, and leaves in the winter." Dr. Maack has met with it at Irkutsk ; and
Middendorff says that it " passed on migration the southern coast of the Sea of Ochotsk on the
13th of September." Dr. von Schrenk procured it on the Lower Amoor.

Mr. Swinhoe records it in his list of the Birds of China as having been found at Tientsin,
Hankow (Central China), Foochow, and Amoy. Pere David says it passes Peking but very
rarely, as he has only obtained one specimen.

The exact residence of the Hobby in winter is as yet unknown ; but at this season it visits
India and Southern Africa, though in no such profusion as to lead us to suppose that these countries
the winter home of the vast hordes of this Falcon which migrate southward in the autumn.

Dr. Jerdon says : —

" The Hobby is a winter visitant to India, and is not very common, though occasionally
killed in various parts of the country. I have shot it near Jalna; and it has been taken at
Calcutta and in various parts of the Himalayas. Its prey is small birds, Larks, &c, and not
unfrequently insects. The one I shot near Jalna had its stomach crammed with Dragonfhes,
which I had seen it hawking over a tank just after sunset. It is stated occasionally to be seen
in flocks, and to fly about at dusk. It does not breed in this country. It used to be trained to
hawk Quails and Larks in Europe. I believe it to be the Rege of Indian falconers."

Mr. Hume, in his ' Rough Notes,' observes : —

" Of the breeding-habits of this species in India, I, as yet, know nothing. Although common
enough in some parts of the Himalayahs, it is a rare visitant (and then only in the cold season)

76

8

to the plains ; and if it breeds anywhere within our limits, it will be, I apprehend, in the higher
ranges of the hills." Mr. B. Thompson, writing from Kumaon, the 16th September, says, " I
saw yesterday our English Hobby, numbers of which ■visit India during the cold weather ; every
mountain-top of 12,000 feet and upwards had flocks of them hunting about for insects last
September, when I was out in the interior. I am inclined to doubt whether the Hobby breeds
anywhere in the Himalayahs south of the snowy range."

Major Irby observed it in Oudh in September 1858 ; and Mr. Blyth says it has been killed
in Southern India.

Sir Andrew Smith was the first to discover the Hobby at the Cape ; and Mr. Layard, in the
' Birds of South Africa,' writes : —

" Several specimens of this Hawk have been received, viz. : — a fine female from Swellendam ;
a pair, male and female, from Mr. Jackson, at Nel's Foort ; one male purchased in the flesh in
Cape Town ; a richly coloured male also fell to my own gun on the Cape Flats ; and Mr. Atmore
has procured it near Blanco." Mr. Andersson procured it in Damaraland ; and it has been sent
from Bissao, in West Africa.

The Hobby is a true Falcon, and is in fact an immature Peregrine in every respect ; long-
winged, swift, and peculiarly active, it is a terror to all small birds, catching even the strong-winged
Swallow by its superior power of flight. Larks, however, are its favourite quarry ; and from its
fondness for these its German and Swedish names, both meaning " Lark-Falcon," are derived. It
is bold ; and although it generally attacks small birds, still it does not hesitate to strike sometimes
at birds far larger than itself. Individuals are often captured near London, which fly into the
bird-catchers' nets after decoy-birds.

Mr. Gatcombe gives us an instance of this bird's impetuosity in seeking its prey : —

" Some years since I had one sent me in the flesh, which had dashed through a window at a
Goldfinch in a cage, and was so injured as to be easily captured. We sometimes hear of the
Sparrow-Hawk doing this ; but I never knew of an instance before where the Hobby acted thus."

Dr. Eversmann, however, has been witness of a similar occurrence during his journeys in
Central Asia. " The Hobby," he says, " is always on the move. Generally a pair quarter the
Steppe-like flats in every direction in company. Its flight is graceful, and very swift and strong.
It is very bold, and I have known it pursue a small bird through the window into my carriage
when I have been travelling on the Steppes."

Lord Lilford has kindly sent us the following note : — " The Hobby is particularly docile, and
easily tamed, but, from his usual and favourite prey consisting of insects, is of no use to the
Falconer. I consider this bird by far the most agile and swift of all the species of Falconidse
with which I am acquainted, and I have occasionally seen it chase Swallows, but I think it was
more in sport than in earnest. I never noticed that this species hovered in the same manner as
the Kestrel ; but in the summer-time it sometimes soars to an immense height, and ' lies upon its
wings ' in bright sunny weather for hours together. The Hobby is very pugnacious during the
breeding-season, and the nest is often to be discovered by the cry of the old birds as they chase a
passing Crow, Magpie, or Jay from their domain. I never could manage to keep this species alive
for any great length of time in captivity, though I have in one instance succeeded in doing so
through three moults. A young Hobby was shot in South Lancashire some years ago by my

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9

father's gamekeeper, who told me that it followed his pointer dog, as he was Partridge-shooting,
for a considerable distance, and kept stooping and striking the dog till he was quite disgusted,
and came in to heel."

Mr. C. E. Diezel (' Naumannia,' 1856, p. 260) relates a curious instance of the sagacity of
this Falcon : —

" In the Seegwald stood a large beech tree, on which was a very large old nest, which,
although the old birds were regularly shot for eight years, either when the nest contained eggs
or when feeding their young, was still tenanted again. One year, when, as the birds were so shy,
they could not be approached within gunshot, the forester and a companion took turn about
to watch the nest, which then contained young, in order to shoot the parent birds as they
came with food. The old birds never came within shot, and still the young were not
starved. After a time, however, the watchers discovered that the old birds took food and,
hovering far out of gunshot above the nest, dropped it down into the latter, thus feeding the
young without danger to themselves. That this really was the case, was proved by keeping a
careful and continuous watch ; and moreover food was found under the tree which had in falling
missed its mark."

An instance of the courage of the Hobby in defence of its nest has been already given by
Sharpe in his ' Birds of Cookham,' from which we extract the following : —

" When at Billing-bear, Mr. Briggs had a nest of this species in one of the plantations
on the estate, and only waited till the young ones were fledged, to take them. Accordingly he
mounted to the nest, and was immediately greeted with loud cries from the young birds. The
male Hobby, hearing the screams of the nestlings, sailed over to the spot, and surveyed the
scene of action from a considerable height. Suddenly, as Mr. Briggs was preparing to descend
with his captives, the bird darted clown from above with immense velocity, his wings cleaving
the air with a loud lohish-sh-sh as he shot down to within a foot of the intruder's head, and
then, carried up by the impetus of his descent, he mounted as swiftly as he had stooped, and
only paused a second ere he recommenced the attack. This was renewed in quick succession as
Mr. Briggs descended, causing in his mind no small apprehension lest the courageous bird should
strike at his face. Having reached the ground in safety, and wishing to obtain the old Hawk, he
carried the young into the middle of a neighbouring field, and, having made them scream, stood
ready with his gun. No sooner did the parent bird hear the young cry, than he again appeared,
and from an immense height swooped at Mr. Briggs with the same astonishing velocity that had
characterized his former descents. So sudden was the attack that there was no time to fire, and
the bird ascended again like lightning. Would that I could now add that the Hobby escaped ;
but, alas ! love for its nestlings impelled him to make one more stoop, and, in the midst of his
next descent, the gun was fired, and the poor Hobby fell dead to the earth."

The following interesting anecdote of its courage is given by Mr. Stevenson in the ' Birds
of Norfolk':—

" A pair of these birds were observed to frequent a wood at Hockering ; and, doomed by the
very name of ' Hawk,' the male soon fell a victim to the keeper's gun. A second and a third
time the female returned with a fresh mate, but only to share the fate of its predecessors ; still
she managed herself to escape all dangers, and, undaunted by her repeated losses, returned with

2 a

78

10

a fourth consort to the same spot. This time the persecution was stayed, and the gallant little
bird was allowed to rear her young ones undisturbed, which were seen later in the season flying
about the wood. Of the three males, which were brought successively to a bird-preserver in this
city, the first was in immature, the others in adult plumage ; and it is the more remarkable that
the female in this instance should so soon and so often have obtained fresh partners of her own
species, since the Hobby, as above stated, is by no means numerous throughout the country."

It appears that the Hobby, according to several accurate observers, is very vivacious, and
often annoys birds and animals simply for the sake of doing so. Thus Lord Lilford remarks
above on their chasing Swallows in sport ; and we now give some further accounts of the bird's
habits, corroborating his Lordship's idea. Mr. F. H. Snell writes from Schwalbach : —

" In this part of the country, although this Falcon is rare, it is well-known to the peasants
that it often catches Swallows, and is indeed called here ' Schwalbenrauber ' (Swallow-robber).
This summer a man told me how he had observed one pursuing two common Swallows (Hirundo
rustica), which appeared to be an old and a young bird ; and it at last caught the latter. The
Martin (Hirundo urbica), however, appears to be safe from its attacks. Here, where this Falcon
only shows itself out of the breeding-season, and always in pairs, I have often carefully observed
the demeanour of the Swallows when they show themselves. So soon as the Falcons appeared
and made their peculiar aerial evolutions, all the Swallows took to flight in apparent terror ; only
the Martins flew somewhat higher, continually sounding an alarm ; and now and then single ones,
more bold than the rest, would strike at the hated robber. This, however, was done with such
speed and caution, that one could easily see that the swiftest of all birds of prey was before
them."

Respecting its habit of chasing Swallows, the late Mr. Seidensacher, of Cilli, has also written
as follows : —

" In our town the Hobbies catch the Swallows amongst the houses ; and as these latter breed
here abundantly, the Hobby may be seen flying about all day when it has young. Though
generally it obtains its prey by surprise, or by its astonishing swiftness on the wing, it sometimes
is very crafty ; and I once observed a Hobby in the autumn pursuing a flight of Swallows, which
latter reached a clump of rushes, and thus escaped the Falcon. The latter, however, began to
circle and rose higher and higher, extending its circles, and when it had risen to some height flew
away. I watched it, and observed that after it had reached a distance of several hundred paces it
began to circle again, and no sooner had the Swallows, rendered bolder by its absence, left the
refuge of the reeds, than it shot down on them with great swiftness, and was in a moment
amongst the terrified birds."

Mr. J. Gatcombe sends us a note : —

" Another time when out with my gun in the autumn I observed a Hawk flying in circles,
followed by a host of small birds. Suddenly it turned round, dashed out its foot and caught one
of them, still continuing, but widening, its circle. I rushed forward and fired, when down came
an adult female Hobby, dropping the little bird from its claw as it fell."

Professor von Nordmann has published the following interesting remarks on its food and
vivacity : —

"It is generally admitted that the Hobby only accidentally nests in the South of Europe;

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ii

still in the Crimea and the rest of New Russia this is not the case, as wherever the smallest grove
is found, there one is almost certain to discover its nest, which is often one stolen from a Magpie
or Crow. During the summer it may be met with all over the Steppes, principally near pools
and stagnant water, where the various feathered tribes assemble to quench their thirst. There it
is the terror of the different species of Larks, and particularly of the Calandra Lark, on which it
pounces from some bush, forces it to take flight, and seizes it in the air. During the summer
the young and inexperienced birds of this species are the greatest sufferers, as the old ones are
too shrewd to take flight, but squat close to the gi-ound and thus escape, as this Falcon only
seizes those that are on the wing. This Falcon also takes great pleasure in pursuing birds much
larger than itself, which it cannot injure, but only annoy. The Numidian Cranes are particularly
subjected to its malice. At the Salghir brook, in the Crimea, I observed a pair of these Falcons
interfering in a perfect spirit of mischief with a flock of these Cranes, who were amusing them-
selves with dancing, and taking pleasure in striking first at the one and then the other of these
peaceable birds, apparently deriving much amusement from this proceeding. During the
breeding-season it frequents the forests and wooded districts generally, but at other seasons
of the year is found in the open country, where its favourite food, which then consists of birds, is
to be found."

Bailly says, " In autumn, when the first Quails migrate, the Hobbies leave the forests and
are found in the groves on the plains. From time to time they visit, particularly in the mornings,
the open, to chase Larks, Swallows, Quails, &c., which rise before the dogs, and do not fear to
seize them even within range of the sportsman's gun."

Loche states : — " In Algeria it causes great havoc amongst the small birds, particularly those
that frequent the ground, such as the Quails, Hemipodes, Thrushes, Larks, &c, and will sit
motionless on a clod of earth for hours watching for them. Nor does it despise insects.

" M. Bouteille, in his ' Ornithologie du Dauphine,' states that he has seen a party of five or
six of these Falcons fishing very expertly for frogs on a sheet of water near Drac, where they were
fired at for several hours, the survivors not showing alarm."

We are unable to refer to M. Bouteille's work, quoted from as above by Mr. Loche ; but it
appears to us that the birds spoken of by M. Bouteille were in all probability Bed-footed Falcons,
and not Hobbies.

Dr. L. Taczanowsky, of Warsaw, has given us the following notes respecting the food and
habits of this bird : —

"The Hobby readily feeds on large insects. At two periods of the year it has in our
country ample opportunities of satisfying this taste. In the month of May, when the Cockchafers
(Melolontha majalis) are plentiful, the Hobbies go every evening to the fields and, flying about in
different directions above the wheat and rye, where these insects have undergone their changes,
seize those which rise into the air, and, continuing their flight, tear off the elytra and legs and
devour the rest. They continue hunting after them until it is quite dark. The other period is
when, during the great heat in the month of June, the different species of Libellulce appear in
large numbers; and then the Hobbies feed almost exclusively on these. In flying over the
cornfields, or under the foliage, they seize them on the wing, and, after tearing off the wings,
they devour them, like the Cockchafers, without stopping in their career. I have never seen

2a2

80

12

the Hobby hunt after insects on the ground like the Kestrels and the Red-legged Falcon. I
have several times seen it seize a bat on the wing ; but it threw it away directly."

In Finland, Dresser found the present species abundant in the central and southern parts of
the country, and breeding even as far north as Uleaborg, where he procured several sittings of
their eggs, in every instance from deserted Crows' nests, of which the Hobbies had taken posses-
sion after the young Crows had flown.

It is a migrant in this country, arriving in the spring and leaving again in the autumn.
Mr. J. H. Gurney writes : — " Hobbies appear on their arrival in England in spring to affect par-
ticular localities. I know an instance of a particular tree on my son's estate at Northrepps, in
Norfolk, on which a Hobby was shot in the spring of the successive years 1863, 1864, and 1865."

Mr. E. Seidensacher observes: —

" The Hobby nests in the forests near Cilli, and chooses as its nesting-place high, smooth-
barked firs difficult to climb. It generally takes possession of an old Crow's nest, after the eggs
or young have been taken away, or the latter have flown ; and this it repairs for its own use. It
prefers a nest to which the approach is open and above the general height of the trees ; thus it is
generally to be found where open woods cover the ridge of a hill.

" They are very busy when at their nest, and, long before the female lays, both birds may
be seen circling high or low above the chosen place, pursuing each other, uttering their call-note
and settling down near or on the nest ; indeed one may always see or hear one of them at or near
the chosen site. It breeds very late ; and I have found on the 25th of June, and even as late as the
29th of July in 1862, fresh eggs. On the 30th of June, 1864, I found three fresh eggs, one of
which was white, with the faintest markings. Near this nest, out of which young Crows had
flown late in May, I saw the pair of Hobbies circling round on the 1st of June ; and still the first
egg was not deposited before the 28th of June. On the 21st of July, 1864, probably this same
pair had two eggs not far from the former nesting-place."

Lord Lilford sends us a note on the breeding of the present bird : —

" The nest is generally an old one of the Carrion-Crow or the Magpie, and the number of
eggs usually three or four ; but I once received five young ones out of one nest. I have received
young Hobbies five or six times within the last eight or nine years taken from the nest in South
Lincolnshire, where this Falcon appears to be more common now than in any other part of
England. Dragonflies are a very favourite prey; and a wood bordering a piece of water or
marshy ground in a district frequented by this bird would be the most likely locality for the nest.
I have known of the Hobby breeding in the immediate neighbourhood of Harrow-on-the-Hill,
and last year received two living birds caught close to London in bird-catchers' clap-nets."

The following curious instance of the mating of a Hobby and a Sparrow-Hawk was con-
tributed to the ' Zoologist' (p. 3276), by Major Irby in 1851 :—

" About the end of last May a male Hobby and female Sparrowhawk paired together at
Witchingham, in Norfolk, and enlarged a Ringdove's nest which was in a fir tree about nine or
ten yards from the ground. Five eggs were laid in it, one of which was taken by the game-
keeper, whom I had previously told to keep for me any Hawks' eggs he might take. As soon as
the other eggs were hatched, he shot both the Hobby and the Sparrowhawk, leaving the young
birds to starve. Fortunately I was able to get the Hobby preserved, although it had been hung

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13

up more than a month. The egg which the gamekeeper kept for me has rather more red about
it than is usual for a Sparrowhawk's egg to have, and not so much as the Hobby's usually has ;
but the Hobby's sometimes very much resembles the Sparrowhawk's. I have hoard of another
instance, also in this county, of the Hobby and Sparrowhawk pairing together in a wild state ;
but the birds were both shot before any eggs were produced."

The eggs of the Hobby can generally be distinguished from those of the Kestrel at the first
glance, although varieties of the one species occasionally approach the eggs of the other species
in appearance. Hobbies' eggs are usually more yellowish in tinge than Kestrels', and very
rarely shade off into rufous. "We have a series now before us (out of Dresser's collection),
obtained in Finland and Styria, which do not vary greatly in colour and markings. In size they
vary from lf-§ inch by 1£§ to If j} by l^J, and have the ground-colour yellowish white, closely
covered with minute yellowish-red spots, and blotches distributed generally over the egg. One
rather richly coloured egg, procured by Dresser near Uleaborg, in Finland, has a zone of reddish
spots at the larger end ; and another, procured by the late Eduard Seidensacher near Cilli,
Styria, is altogether very rufous in colour, and is heavily blotched with pure rufous at the larger
end. Another variety, procured near Cilli out of a nest with two other well-marked eggs, is pure
white, with a few very minute reddish spots scattered over it. This egg was taken as late as the
30th of June.

The general shape of the Hobby's egg is roundish oval ; but occasionally eggs elongated and
tapering towards the smaller end are found.

Mi - . Howard Saunders writes to us : —

" Our English name Hobby seems to be a corrupted pronunciation of Haut-bois, in con-
firmation of which I may state that a place in Norfolk, ' the Haut-bois,' is invariably called ' the
Hobbies.' This derivation is further confirmed by the French name, 'faucon Ilobereau,' an
evident corruption of ' Hautbois(r)eau,' the 'cau' being the substantive termination signifying
'frequenter' or 'inhabitant of,' and the 'r' having entered for the sake of euphony. And a
frequenter of the large woods this species most emphatically is; and no one knew this better than
our Norman-French ancestors, who, from their constant attention to all species available in
hawking, were better acquainted with the habits and characteristics of Falcons than most
naturalists of the present day. It is well known that the Hobby is not easily kept in confine-
ment for any length of time ; but I can cite a single and remarkable instance to the contrary.
Mr. Sabine, a friend of mine, purchased a nestling in Leadenhall Market in July or August
1849 ; and it only died, in the absence of the proprietor, in June 1864 ; so that it was just fifteen
years old. I may add that I have frequently seen and handled this identical bird."

Latham, in the Supplement to his ' General Synopsis of Birds,' gives the Latin name of
Falco subbuteo major to the " Greater Hobby " mentioned in the last-named work (Gen. Syn.
Suppl. ii. p. 47). This is originally taken from Bechstein, and apparently refers to the Peregrine
Falcon, but has been applied by most authors to the Hobby, which can scarcely be said to be at
any time " as large as a Raven." We omit this name from our list of synonyms, not being
satisfied that it should really be referred to F. subbuteo. Falco pinetarius, Shaw (Gen. Zool. vii.
p. 195), given with a query as a synonym of F. subbuteo by Mr. G. R. Gray, is founded on the
" Greater Hobby " of Latham, and when that species is identified must be added as a synonym.

82

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In. the case of a common bird like the Hobby it were needless to recount the many figures
which have been given of the species in the various works ; but we cannot omit to recommend to
our readers two admirable pictures of this Hawk, viz. one by Wolf in the eighth part of
Mr. Gould's 'Birds of Great Britain' (where an adult male Hobby is depicted with a dragonfly
in his claws), and another spirited drawing in Brodrick's ' Falconers' Favourites ' (where the bird
has just missed his stoop at a Skylark and is recovering for another attempt).

The descriptions and figures are taken from an adult pair of birds in our own collection, the
male being from Malta and the female from Bussia, killed at Cholmogory on the 5th of August,
1859. The young birds are described from specimens taken in Essex, and now in the collection
of Messrs. Salvin and Godman. Those figured in the second Plate are from the collections of
Mr. Howard Saunders and Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., the young in down being the property of the
last-named gentleman.

In the preparation of the above article we have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. Sliarpe and Dresser.

a. Malta (C. A. Wright) . b. Cholmogory, August 5, 1869 (Meves). c. River Volga (L. Sabanaeff). d,e. Near
Copenhagen {A. Benzon). f. Eastern Russia (Renard).

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.
a, b, c. Pomerania (H. E. B.).

E Mus. Salvin and Godman.
a. d. Oudekirk, Holland, May 29, 1856 (J. Baker), b, c.juv. Essex [F. G.).

E Mus. Lord Lilford.

a. ? . Near Oxford, May 1852 (£.). b. d juv. Shot on Fort-Neuf barracks, Corfu, April 1859 (L.). c. 6 juv.
Coto del Rey, Andalucia, May 1869 (L.) .

E Mus. H. B. Tristram.
a. d. Farn Islands, May 13, 1859 {H. B. T.).

E Mus. J. H. Gurney, jun.
a. 6 . St. Leonard's, September 23rd, 1870 {Kent), b. Norfolk {Seeley).

E Mus. Howard Saunders,
a. Andalucia (H. S.).

380

ffWf

J.G.Keuiemans del

Winifni Bros imp .

MERLIN.

FALCO REGULUS.

381

MERLIN

ABuk. fomaJe r and foun£

s:\

falco j:salon.

(MERLIN.)

Falco lithofalco, Brisson, Orn. i. p. 349 (1766).

Falco cesalon, Brisson, torn. cit. p. 3S2 (1766).

Le Eochier, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. i. p. 286 (1770).

L'Emerillon, Buff. torn. cit. p. 288, pi. xix. (1770).

Falco cesalon, Tunstall, Ornithologia Britannica, p. 1 (1771).

Falco regulus, Pall. Reise, ii. Anhang, p. 707 (1773).

Falco lithofalco, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 278 (1788, ex Briss.).

Falco cesalon, Gm. torn. cit. p. 284 (1788, ex Briss.).

Falco falconiarum, Gm. torn. cit. p. 284 (1788, ex Buff).

Falco smirillus, Savigny, Ois. d'Egypte (1809).

Falco sibiricus, Shaw, Gen. Zool. vii. pt. 1, p. 207 (1809).

Falco cmsius, Wolf, Taschenb. deutschen Vogelk. i. p. 60 (1810).

Hypotriorchis a?salon (Tunst.), Boie, Isis, 1828, p. 314.

JEsalon, Kaup (Falco cesalon, Gm.), Natiirl. Syst. p. 40 (1829).

JEsalon lithofalco (Gm.), Bp. Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1854, p. 530.

JEsalon orientalis, C. L. Brehm, Naumannia, 1855, p. 269.

JEsalon regulus (Pall.), Blyth, Ibis, 1863, p. 9.

Hypotriorchis lithofalco major, A. E. Brehm, Verz. Samml. C. L. Brehm, p. 1 (1866).

Hypotriorchis lithofalco minor, A. E. Brehm, ut supra. (1866).

Hypotriorchis cesalon major, A. E. Brehm, ut supra (1866).

Hypotriorchis oesalon minor, A. E. Brehm, ut supra (1806).

Lithofalco wsalon (Tunst.), Hume, Hough Notes, i. p. 89 (1869).

Falco wsalon j3. alaudarius, Severtzoff, Turk. Jevotnie, pp. 63 & 114 (1873).

•

Seog, Gaelic ; Faucon Emerillon, French ; Zwergfalke, German ; Esmerejon, Spanish ;
Smeriglio, Smerlo, Italian ; Smelleken, Dutch ; Steenfalk, Blaafalk, Danish ; Dvergfalk,
Stenfalk, Norwegian ; Dvergfalk, Swedish ; Pikkuhaukka, Finnish ; Derbnic socol, Russian.

Figuroe notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PI. Enl. 447, 468; Werner, Atlas, Rapaces, pi. 11; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. pi. 3;
Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 87 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 3. fig. 7, and taf. 4. fig. 4 ; Nau-
mann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 27. figs. 1-3; Sundevall, Sv. Fogl. taf. 26. fig. 3; Gould, B. of
Eur. pi. 24 ; id. B. of G. Brit. i. pi. xix. ; Salvin & Brodr. Falconry, pis. 7, 8 ; Schlegel &
Susemihl, taf. 10. figs. 2, 3 ; Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb. taf. 6.

<3 ad. fronte sordide albidi : capite summo et corpore supra cserulescenti-schistaceis, plumis centraliter nigro-
fusco striatis : collo postico rufescente, fulvido notato : remigibus nigricantibus in pogonio interno

I

84

albido fasciatis, primariis nonnullis et secundariis vix schistaceo apicatis : cauda cserulescenti-schistacea,
fascia magna subapicali notata et quinque fasciis obsoletis nigro-fuscis transfasciata, : capitis lateribus
albis nigro-fusco striatis, superciliis, regione parotica et colli lateribus rufescente lavatis : mento et gula
albis immaculatis : corpore subtus albido, rufescente lavato et nigro-fusco striato : tibiae plumis rufes-
centibus, fere immaculatis : rostro cserulescenti-corneo : cera et pedibus flavis, unguibus nigris : iride
fusca.

$ ad. mari dissimilis : major, corpore suprS, brunneo vix griseo tincto, plumis omnibus centraliter nigro-fusco
striatis et rufescente brunneo marginatis et guttatis, pileo saturatiore : collo postico rufescenti-albido,
brunneo notato : alis rufescentioribus quam in mare, fasciis in pogonio interno rufescenti-cervinis nee
albis : caudal saturate brunnea vix griseo lavata, rufescente cervino fasciata, et albido apicata : mento et
gula, albis fere immaculatis : corpore subtus albido, valde brunneo striato, subcaudalibus et crisso albis
centraliter vix fusco striatis : tibiae plumis vix cervino lavatis.

Adult Male (Malta, October 1861). Forehead dirty white, crown and nape dark ashy blue, with a slaty
tinge, all the feathers on the forehead, crown, and nape with blackish central stripes, fore part of the
back crossed by a narrow rufous collar, the sides of the nape being also rufous; back, rump, upper tail-
coverts, inner secondaries, and wing-coverts clear slaty blue, all the feathers having dark shaft-stripes ;
quills blackish, closely barred on the inner web with white, some of the primaries and the secondaries
with narrow slaty-blue tips, and most of the quills with obsolete slaty markings on the basal portion of
the outer web ; tail slaty blue, paler than the back, with a broad subterminal black band, and remains
of five other bands at regular intervals between the base of the tail and the large band ; sides of the
head and neck whitish, narrowly striped with blackish, and on the eyebrows, ear-coverts, and sides of
the neck washed with rufous ; chin and upper throat pure white ; rest of the underparts white strongly
washed with rufous, and broadly striped with blackish brown, the long thigh-feathers, however, are pale
rufous, almost unstriped ; bill bluish horn, darker at the tip ; cere and legs yellow, claws black ; iris
dark brown. Total length 11 inches, culmen - 7, wing 7 - 9, tail 53, tarsus 1-45.

Adult Female (Stettin, April) . Differs considerably from the male, not only in size but in plumage ; upper
parts dark brown, with a faint greyish tinge, all the feathers with blackish shaft-stripes, and edged and
spotted with reddish brown, those on the crown being darkest, and least marked with reddish brown ;
hind neck intermixed with greyish white and pale reddish white ; wings browner than in the male, the
barrings being pale reddish or warm buff instead of white ; tail dark brown, with a faint greyish tinge,
crossed by six rufous buff bands, and tipped with buffy white ; chin and upper throat nearly pure white,
rest of the underparts white, very broadly striped with dark brown, the feathers being in fact dark
brown with very broad white lateral margins ; under tail-coverts and crissum white, with narrow shaft-
stripes; thigh-feathers slightly washed with buff. Culmen - 75, wing 8"5, tail 59, tarsus l - 55.

Young Male (Malta) . Closely resembles the female, but is a little greyer on the tail and rump, the under-
parts are less strongly marked with brown, and the crown and back are more rufous.

Nestling in down. Covered with white down slightly tinged with pale creamy buff.

Obs. I note that (in his Catalogue of Accipitres, p. 407) Mr. Sharpe says that the adult female is " similar
to the male, but a little larger," which is quite contrary to the testimony of Macgillivray, Naumann,
Nilsson, and other ornithologists, who have had the amplest opportunities of observing this bird in a
natural state ; and I may add that, although I have had numbers through my hands, all carefully sexed
by myself or others, I have never seen a female which could be said to be similar to the male. It may
therefore be as well to add a few remarks respecting the specimens before me, which, I may say, fully

confirm my own former experience., and exactly coincide with what Naumann says respecting the
various stages of plumage. The youngest specimen I possess is one only a few days old, from
Kautokeino, which is covered with white down, slightly tinged with creamy white on the crown. The
next in age appears to be a female, and is from Novaja Zemlia (Nova Zembla) ; compared with the
female above described, this bird is much more rufous on the upper parts, especially on the head, and
has the underparts very thickly marked with dull umber-brown. A somewhat older bird than this is a
young male in the collection of Mr. C. A. Wright, of Malta. This specimen has the upper parts darker
than the young bird from Novaja Zemlia ; and the rump is tinged with grey ; the underparts, though
tolerably closely striped with dark brown, arc less so than in the young female above described. A
somewhat older bird than this young male is the one above described, also from Malta. A male from
Skara, in Sweden, has the upper parts in the fullest plumage; but the underparts are still in the closely
striped immature dress, and lack the rufous tinge of the fully adult bird. From these we come to the
adult female and male above described ; but I find that the female frequently attains, at probably an
advanced age, a dress somewhat different from that of the old female above described, but paler, and
has the upper parts washed with dull pale slate-grey or mousc-grcy. This stage of plumage was first
pointed out to me by Mr. Joseph "Wolf, the well-known artist, to whom I am indebted for the use of a
careful water-coloured sketch of the bird in this dress, as well as of the young male, both taken by him
from life. These have been copied by Mr. Kculcmans, and arc to form the second Plate. Since
receiving the sketch from Mr. Wolf, however, I have obtained females in this plumage from several
localities, one from Malta (lent to me by Mr. C. A. Wright) being an especially large and fine
specimen.

The Merlin is found throughout Europe, being a summer visitant in the north and a winter
resident in the south. It visits North Africa during the winter, and is found in Asia as far east
as China, and breeds in Northern Siberia. It does not occur in America, being replaced by
F. columbarius.

In Southern and Central England it is, as a rule, a winter visitant ; but instances are on
record of its having bred here. Mr. A. G. More says (Ibis, 1865, p. 10) that the Rev. M. A.
Mathews informed him that it had been seen on Exmoor in June. Mr. Farren (Zool. p. 8159)
states that he found the nest of the Merlin in low trees in the New Forest ; but the fact of the
nest being thus placed makes one believe that the Kestrel may have been mistaken for it. Mr.
Rogers, however, is said to have birds and eggs from the New Forest. Dr. Bree says that it
breeds in Essex. Mr. More further adds that according to Mr. Lingwood it breeds occasionally
in Hereford, according to Mr. Shaw in Shropshire, Mr. Tracy says that it also breeds occasionally
in Pembrokeshire, Mr. Salvin states that it nests regularly in Derbyshire, Mr. Eyton records it
from North Wales, and in North England it becomes a regular breeding species.

In Scotland it is commonly distributed throughout the country, and is met with even on
the outer Hebrides ; and in Ireland it is indigenous in the northern counties as well as in the
south of the island ; and Thompson says that it breeds in the county of Antrim, in the mountains
of Londonderry and Tyrone, in Down, Tipperary, Cork, and Waterford. It does not occur in
Greenland; and the most western limit from which it is recorded is in lat. 57° 41' N. and long.
35° 23' W., where a specimen, now in the Norwich Museum, was caught at sea by Mr. Edward
Whymper in May 1867. In Iceland it breeds numerously, and is a common summer visitant,
arriving late in March and leaving in October. Captain Feilden writes that in the Faeroes it is

i2

86

resident, and not uncommon, and, contrary to its mode of nidification in England, it invariably
breeds in rocks and precipices extremely difficult of access. Throughout Norway it is numerous ;
according to Mr. Collett it arrives in April, or sometimes in March, in Southern Norway, and
breeds commonly throughout the northern portions of the country from the Russian frontier
down to the Dovre, where it is replaced by the Kestrel. Below the fell-ridges it is rarer, and
on the fells occurs almost solely in the birch-region ; still a few breed in the lowlands, as for
instance, at Ringerike, Modum, and Hoiderne, near Christiania. Most leave in October ; but
occasional stragglers are seen in November, and Mr. Siebke observed one at Tojenhavn as late as
the 15th December. It has, however, never been known to winter in Norway. In Sweden it is,
as in Norway, most common in the northern provinces; and Nilsson says that the southern
boundary of its range is about the northern limit of that of the Kestrel. According to Mr. Malm,
however, it is said to breed near Gothenburg ; and according to Wallengren, also on Gottland.
In Finland it is more common in the north than in the southern portions of the country ; but I
met with it in almost all parts I visited. It is common in Northern Russia, and I have received
many from Archangel, and one from as far north as Novaja Zemlia.

SabanaefF says that in the Ural it is rarer than the Hobby. He did not observe it further
north than in about 57° N. lat. It breeds in Central Russia, and Meshakoff says that it is not
rare in the south-western portions of the Government of Vologda. It occurs during migration
only, so far as I can ascertain, in Poland and the Baltic Provinces, and Borggreve doubts whether
it ever remains to breed in North Germany, where it occurs during the seasons of migration, and
a few winter in the south-western part of that country ; Boeck states that it breeds in Prussia ;
Tobias observed it in the mountains of Lausitz during the summer ; Gloger writes that it breeds
rarely on the highest ridge of the Riesengebirge ; and Schauer says that he saw it in the High
Tatra on the 30th June. In Denmark, as in Northern Germany, it is met with during the
spring and autumn, and appears to be tolerably common, but, Mr. Benzon says, appears never to
remain there to breed.

It occurs also during the two seasons of migration in Belgium, being more especially found
in Ardenne and Campine, and is supposed to remain over winter ; but, on the whole, it is a
rare species. It is said to breed sometimes in Luxemburg. In Holland it has been observed
throughout the entire summer; and Schlegel and Zander suppose that it breeds there. Von
Droste often observed it in East Friesland during the breeding-season, but believes the birds
seen were only stragglers. It is by him said to be common on Borkum during the seasons of
passage, and some few individuals remain over the winter. Mr. Labouchere tells me also that
he has reason to believe it may probably breed in Holland, but adds that he has failed to trace
any authentic instance of its nest having been found in that country. Throughout France it is
generally distributed, but only during migration.

Professor Barboza du Bocage does not include it in his list of the birds found in Portugal ;
but it occurs in Spain, where, Lord Lilford says, it is a common and well-known winter resident.
Graells says that it is rare in the province of Madrid ; and Machado gives the same information
respecting its occurrence in the province of Seville.

In Savoy, according to Bailly, it is abundant, especially the birds of the year, from October
to February, a few pairs remaining to breed, retiring for that purpose to the high mountains,

87

where they make their nests in the crevices of the rocks, and also at the tops of the large oaks
and firs. In the Pyrenees it is also said to nest in trees ; and, as stated below, Mr. Collett has
found it in Norway nesting in trees. In Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia it occurs during passage,
and also winters there, but, so far as I can ascertain, it does not appear ever to remain to breed.
Schembri and Mr. C. A. Wright speak of it as being not uncommon at Malta during passage ;
but Captain Feilden tells me that he has only obtained two examples during the twelve months
he has resided there. Lord Lilford says (Ibis, 1860, p. 7) that it is frequently met with in
Epirus during winter, and adds that all he saw, either dead or alive, were in adult plumage.

It is stated by both Lindermayer and Von der Mlihle to be common in Greece, in fact quite
as much so as the Hobby. Erhardt, however, did not meet with it in the Cyclades. In Southern
Germany it is much rarer than the Kestrel, and chiefly met with during the autumn passage.
Curiously enough, contrary to the experience of Lord Lilford in Greece, Dr. A. Fritsch says
(J. f. O. 1871, p. 180) that he has very rarely met with adult birds in Bohemia. According to
Gloger it breeds in the Biesengebirge. In the Danubian principalities it occurs as in Turkey
and Greece, during migration or in the winter, but does not appear to remain to breed.
Professor Von Nordmann also states that it is common in Southern Russia during the two
seasons of passage, leaving for only a very short time in midwinter ; but he does not think that
it breeds in the steppes. Eversmann, however, says (J. f. O. 1853, p. 62) that it inhabits the
steppes during the summer, leaving in the autumn. Strickland obtained it in Asia Minor, near
Smyrna, in the winter season; and Canon Tristram records it (Ibis, 1865, p. 258) as being not
uncommon in Palestine during winter, where he frequently saw it both on the coast and in the
central plains. He saw the last at Bashan on the 11th March. It occurs in Africa; and is,
according to Captain Shelley, extremely abundant in Egypt in spring, but rarely passes as far
south as Nubia. Mr. E. C. Taylor and Captain Shelley both remark on the great preponderance
of males as compared with females ; and the latter adds that, though he has seen as many as
thirty in a day, he never met with a single female. Von Heuglin writes (Orn. N.O.-Afr. p. 35),
"it straggles to Africa in winter and spring, the larger number being young birds. We shot
an old male on the 20th April at Cairo. Brehm met with a small party of about ten individuals
on the 14th March, 1852. Dr. Hartmann states that it is common in the Acacia-wildemess,

between Der and Wadi Sebua, in Northern Nubia ; but I have never seen one so far south

In Leyden there is a specimen said to be from Sennaar." Dr. A. E. Brehm obtained one near
Chartoum in February. It likewise occurs in North-west Africa in the spring and autumn ;
and Loche says that it has been seen in the breeding-season in Kabylia and near Boghar.
Mr. Taczanowski, in his notes on the avifauna of Algeria, says that he saw an adult male about
the middle of December.

To the eastward it occurs as far as China ; but I do not find it recorded from Japan. It has
been met with at Erzeroum ; but Messrs. Blanford and St. John did not meet with it in Persia,
though it doubtless occurs there. Dr. Jerdon speaks of it as being a rare visitant to the extreme
north-west frontier of India during the cold season, and says that Dr. Leith Adams observed it
in the north-west of the Punjab. According to Mr. A. O. Hume (Stray Feathers, i. p. 157) it
is a mere cold-weather straggler into Sindh, and rare there. He only once saw it, but was
informed by Captain Maiden that he had shot it near Kotree ; and Mr. James had also procured

88

6

a specimen. Sever tzoff speaks of it as occurring during summer in North-eastern and South-
eastern Turkestan, and during winter in the north- and south-western portions of that country.
During the winter it is met with to an altitude of about 4000 feet, and during passage occurs
even as high as from 10,000 to 14,000 feet. He speaks (/. c.) of a subspecies as occurring in
Turkestan ; but I do not think, judging from his description, that it is specifically different from
the common Merlin.

Both Von Middendorff and Dr. G. Radde record it from Siberia. The former says that it
arrived at Aldan about the end of April, and breeds near Udskoj-Ostrog ; and Dr. Radde
considers it rather uncommon in Siberia, and adds that it has not been observed on the Lower
Amoor; it only passes through the elevated steppes of Mongolia during migration; and he
says that he observed young birds at the Tarei-nor from the end of August to the middle of
September. It has been obtained in China by Mr. Swinhoe, who records it from Amoy, Pekin,
and Chefoo. In America it does not occur, being replaced by a very closely allied species (Falco
columbarius), which differs merely in having only two bands less on the tail than our Merlin,
being in other respects almost precisely like that species.

For its size the Merlin is certainly one of the boldest and gamest of the Falcons. Exceed-
ingly swift on the wing, it is able to catch most of the small birds, and subsists chiefly on these
and small mammals ; but it is also said to feed, to some extent, on insects. It will attack and
kill larger birds than itself; and Mr. R. Gray says that he has more than once noticed Merlins
frequenting the heart of the city of Glasgow, where they feed chiefly on the Pigeons, which are
numerous. It frequently haunts the shores and marshy localities, where it creates no little
havoc amongst the numerous Sandpipers which frequent these places, and will attend the
sportsman when he is shooting in order to take its share of the game ; Lord Lilford says that
when shooting near the mouth of the Butrinto river, in Albania, he has seen as many as five
wounded Snipe carried off by a Merlin in an hour. In the days when falconry was one of the
most highly esteemed of field-sports the Merlin was greatly used, being, however, looked on as
more particularly a lady's Falcon. It is, perhaps, only surpassed by the Hobby in swiftness.
Messrs. Salvin and Brodrick, in their well-known work on falconry, say that the strongest
females may be trained to fly Pigeons admirably, and, from their small size and the way in
which they follow every turn and shift of the quarry, are better adapted for this chase than the
Peregrine. Referring to its dexterity on the wing they write as follows : — " We once saw a
Merlin in pursuit of a Swallow, which chase continued as far as the eye could trace it, the
Hawk being about a yard behind its game, and following the most rapid evolutions of the
Swallow, as if moved by the same impulse." They say that the Sky-Lark affords the finest
flight for the Merlin, and for this chase it was used by our ancestors.

In most localities the Merlin places its nest on the ground ; but it also breeds in trees in
wooded places, and in Southern Norway it is said by Mr. Collett to deposit its eggs in an
abandoned nest of Corvus comix, the inside being partly filled up with moss by the new
occupants, whereby the eggs are crowded into a corner ; but in the naked coast regions of that
country it invariably places its nest on the ground. Mr. Collett informs me that Mr. Hartman,
the botanist, found a nest of the Merlin on the Dovre, placed on a pine, and in the same tree
was a Fieldfare's nest. The Merlin's nest contained young, and that of the Fieldfare also ;

89

and these two families appeared to be dwelling in perfect harmony. I am indebted to
Mr. Seebohm, of Sheffield, for the following notes on this species, which is tolerably common
on the moors near that town.

The Merlin, Mr. Seebohm writes, " is a regular summer migrant to the moors of South
Yorkshire and North Derbyshire, where they would commit sad havoc among the young Grouse
if they were not relentlessly persecuted by the gamekeepers, who keep a close watch upon their
well-known breeding-places. The Merlin arrives upon the moors jtowards the end of March or
beginning of April, and feeds principally upon the smaller birds frequenting the district (the
Meadow-Pipit, Grey Linnet, Twite, &c), which his rapid powers of flight enable him easily to
fly down without resorting to the manoeuvres which the clumsier Sparrow-Hawk is compelled to
take advantage of. These moors are the constant breeding-place of three species of Hawk — the
Kestrel, the Sparrow-Hawk, and the Merlin. The Kestrel hovers over the ground at a consi-
derable height, and pounces down on a mouse, and occasionally a lizard or a young Grouse, as
the pellets they cast up abundantly testify. The Sparrow-Hawk skims over hill-tops or hedges,
or round rocks, and comes upon its prey unawares. The Merlin, on the contrary, fairly flies it
down. The site selected for a nest varies in different localities, especially amongst birds of prey.
On the moors in the neighbourhood of Sheffield, however, the Sparrow-Hawk invariably builds
in a tree, the Kestrel as invariably chooses a cleft in a rock, and the Merlin always builds upon
the ground. The date of nidification is evidently chosen with relation to an abundant supply of
food for the young, as in the Cyclades Eleonora's Falcon postpones its operations until August,
so that the young may be fed upon the flocks of Quails returning southward on their autumn
migration ; the Merlin lays its eggs about the middle of May, so that the voracious young may
be fed upon young Grouse. A slight hollow is chosen amongst the tall ling ; whatever roots or
dry grass may chance to be upon the spot are scratched into the rudiments of a nest ; and the
only materials actually selected by the bird appear to be a few slender twigs of ling to form the
outside of the structure, and which are generally broken from the heather overhanging the nest.
The site is usually sloping down to a stream, and commanding a good view of the moor ; and a
patch of heather some couple of hundred yards square has often contained a Merlin's nest every
year for the last dozen years, whilst no other breeding-place could be found nearer than eight or
ten miles. There would be nothing extraordinary in this if it could be proved that the same
pair, or their descendants, annually visited and occupied the same breeding-station ; they might
easily be supposed to have obtained a vested right in the estate, and to have defended it success-
fully against all comers. There are two of these breeding-places on the Sheffield moors — one
near Ashopton, and the other near Stimes ; and I am well acquainted with the gamekeepers in
both localities. They agree in telling me that every year they shoot or trap one or both of the
parent birds, generally both, and that in no case during the last ten years have they ever allowed
the young birds to get away. If one of the birds is shot before they have begun to breed, the
remaining one soon gets another mate ; but later on in the summer this is not the case. The
only way in which to account for the selection every year of the same locality by a fresh pair of
birds seems to be to suppose that the Merlins migrate en masse, and that as they pass each
recognized breeding-place, if the former occupants are not there to take possession, another pair
immediately occupy it. The facts of the case seem to warrant the conclusion that the selected

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8

sites for breeding are well known to a large circle of Merlins ; otherwise it is difficult to account
for the choice always falling upon the same site, out of an indefinite number of others apparently
equally eligible. I have always found the number of eggs laid by the Merlin to be five. The
following summary of the fate of the Merlins in the two localities I have named is interesting as
showing that in the year 1872 the mysterious reserve stock of Merlins was apparently exhausted
in this locality. The gamekeepers have found out by experience that it is of no use to shoot the
birds before they have begun~to breed, as they so easily replace the loss. They shoot or snare
the cock bird as soon as they can after the hen has begun to sit. In the neighbourhood of the
nest are little rocky elevations on the ground which the cock bird uses as feeding-places, and
which are easily found by the feathers of Meadow-Pipits, Linnets, young Grouse, &c. scattered
round them. Upon these knolls traps are set ; and as soon as the cock bird is caught, the hen is
easily shot off the nest."

Mr. Seebohm obtained full particulars of the fate of the unfortunate birds which bred at
the two breeding-places above referred to as follows: — "Nest near Stimes, 1869. Hen shot as
she was bringing food to the young. Cock shot with food in his mouth a quarter of an hour
afterwards. Young all destroyed.

" 1870. Nest on the same bank. Cock trapped and killed in the morning. Hen trapped
in the afternoon in my presence. Eggs all taken, 28th May.

" 1871. Nest on the same bank. Two eggs taken by myself 22nd May. Nest afterwards
forsaken. Birds very wild, and neither was shot this season.

"1872. No Merlins appeared this year.

" 1873. Nest on the same bank. Eggs taken, and both birds destroyed.

"Nest near Ashopton, 1869. Both parents and all the young were destroyed by a party of
gamekeepers after the young had left the nest.

" 1870. Hen shot soon after arrival. The cock found another mate, which was soon after-
wards also shot, and again replaced. Both these were shot before the nest was discovered.

" 1871. Nest on the old bank. Both old birds and the young were destroyed.

"1872. No Merlins appeared this year.

" 1873. Nest on the old bank. I did not ascertain the fate of the parent birds."

The eggs of the Merlin, from four to six in number, resemble those of the Kestrel, but are,
on an average, smaller in size, and scarcely vary so much in markings, though one often sees very
handsome varieties. The usual type appears to be dull brick-red, spotted and mottled with darker
brownish red, and slightly tinted with purple ; but amongst the series in my collection are three
from the same nest which are warm reddish white with a creamy tinge, tolerably closely spotted
with dark brick-red ; and another egg is almost uniform dull chestnut-red, sparingly marked with
a few blackish brown spots.

The specimens figured are, on the one Plate, an adult male and female, these being the
specimens described, and in my collection. On the second Plate, which is taken from original
sketches made by Mr. J. Wolf, are figured a very old female and a young male.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

91

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, 6 ad., b, 6 juv. Altenkirchen, Rhenish Prussia (C. Sachse). c, 5. Stettin, April 1854 (H. E. £>.). d, J .
Skara, May 13th, 1870 (Meves). e,s,f,S- Malta, October 1861 (C. A. Wright), g, 6 . Olympus,
Macedonia, February 16th, 1870 (Kriiper). h,6 ,i,2,j,2. Archangel, May 1874 {Piottuch). k,2.
Archangel, June 30th, 1874 (Piottuch). 1,2- Archangel, July 12th, 187 1- (Piottuch). m, $ . Mczeii,
July 18th, 1873. n,juv. Karskoe more, Novaja Zemlia (A. Aagaard). 0, pull. Kautokeino, June 1871
(Meves) .

E Mus. Howard Saunders.

a, d ad. Yorkshire Moors (T. E. Buckley), b, 6 ad. Malaga, January 7th, 1872. c, 2 • Valencia, Spain, No-
vember 8th, 1871. d, 2- Grao cle Valencia, October 6th, 1872. e, 6 juv. Egypt (E. Cavendish Tag/or).

E Mus. J. II. Gtirney,jtm.

a. Swaffham, Norfolk, September 20th, 1868 (Ellis). b,6. St. Faith's, Keswick, February 11th, IS(i7.
c, 2 ■ Devonshire, March 20th, 1867 (Galcornbe).

E Mus. C. A. Wright,
a, 2 ■ Malta, October 1869. b, d . Malta, November 1871 (C. A. TV.) . c, J . Malta, November 1872 (C. AAV. )

E Mus. B. Sivinhoe.
a, 6 juv. Shanghai, February 1873 (R. S.).

E Mus. II. B. Tristram .

a, 2 ■ Greatham, Durham, September 14th, 1868 (H. B. T.). b,2- Greatham, Durham, December 1867.
c,6,d,2- Bewick Moor, Northumberland (H.B.T.). e,2- Mediterranean, October 28th, 1863
(H. B. T.). f, <j. Gadava, March 11th, 1861 (H. B. T.).

92

382

FALCO VESPERTINUS

9;j

FALCO VESPEETINUS.

(RED-LEGGED FALCON.)

Falco vespertinus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 129 (1766).

Cerchneis vespertinus, Boie, Isis, 1828, p. 314.

Erythropus vespertinus, Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. i. p. 76 (1831).

Tinnunculus vespertinus, Gray, Gen. of B. i. p. 21 (1844).

Falco rufipes, Beseke, Vog. Kurlands, p. 13, t. 3. 4 (1792).

Pannychistes rufipes, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. der europ. Thierw. p. 87 (1829).

Tinnunculus rufipes, Kaup, Classif. Siiug. u. Vog. p. 108 (1844).

Faucon Kobez, French ; Rothfuss-Falke, German ; Rodbent Folk, Swedish ; Rodfod Falk,
Danish ; Falco cuculo, Italian.

d ad. unicolor plumbeus : tibiis cum crisso castaneis : tectricibus subalaribus plumbeis.

? ad. supra cinerasceuti-plumbea, nigrieanti-fasciata : capite toto ct corpore subtus ferrugineis.

Adult Male (no. 1). General colour above dark plumbeous; wing-coverts like tbc back, but slightly paler,
and distinctly inclining to grey on the greater coverts ; quills silvery grey above, black beneath, shafts
black ; tail black ; under surface of the body blue-grey ; thighs, vent, and under tail-coverts rich
chestnut ; under wing-coverts greyish black ; bill horn-coloured, blackish at tip ; cere and bare space
round the eye bright brownish red ; iris bright brown ; legs bright brownish red j claws yellowish
white, horn-coloured at points. Total leugth 11*5 inches, wing 9 - 7, tail 5 - 8, tarsus l - 0.

Adult Female (no. 2). Entire head, back, and sides of neck rufous; entire back ashy grey, each feather
broadly barred with darker grey, the interscapulary region tinged with rufous ; wing-coverts coloured
like the back j quills ashy grey, the shafts black, the inner web of each feather barred with oval
markings of white tinged with rufous, those on the innermost being less distinct, the secondaries
above inchning to silvery grey ; tail similarly barred like the back, the last bar being very distinct and
broad, the tip of each feather dirty white ; feathers in front of the eye black ; throat and cheeks white
tinged with rufous ; a moustachial Line, as well as the entire under surface of the body, together with
the under wing-coverts rufous, Like the head ; bill, cere, bare space round the eye, iris, legs, and claws
as in the maLe, but not so bright. Total length L2 inches, wing lOl, tail 63, tarsus l'O.

A young male (no. 3) differs from the adult in having the upper surface of the body rather Lighter, the
wings slightly more dingy, the innermost secondaries distinctly barred and tinged with rufous, the
inner web of each quill marked as in the female with oval spots, all the tail-feathers, excepting the four
middle ones, which are black, similarly marked to the female ; the under surface of the body is grey,
as in the adult male, excepting a few mottlings of darker grey on the upper part of the breast, and a
tinge of rufous here and there ; under wing-coverts for the most part white tinged with rufous, and
evidently becoming grey ; cere, bare space round the eye, and legs reddish yeLLow ; claws yellowish
white, with dark grey tips.

C

94

Another young male (no. 4) is dark grey on the back, rather paler on the scapulars with fulvous or rufous
edgings, the feathers being banded alternately with grey and fulvous on the lower portion of the back
and rump and on some of the scapulars, these latter being conspicuously tipped with rufous ; wing-
coverts grey, edged with fulvous like the back ; quills very dark grey, the secondaries edged and tipped
with white ; the innermost secondaries barred alternately with grey and fulvous ; all the inner web of
the quills barred with white ; tail-feathers for the most part reddish, tinged on the upper surface, with
clear grey, banded with black ; head very pale ; forehead pure white ; crown of the head rufescent, with
longitudinal brown markings ; nape somewhat varied with white ; feathers in front of and round the
eye black ; cheeks white ; ear-coverts brownish ; throat and sides of the neck white ; breast whitish,
slightly tinged with fulvous, longitudinally streaked with dark brown, these stripes becoming narrower
on the abdomen ; vent and lower abdomen fulvescent, the thighs being especially strongly tinged with
rufous ; bill pale bluish horn-colour, the under mandible yellowish, the upper mandible also strongly
tinged with yellow.

A young female (no. 5) has the throat much whiter and the under parts much lighter than in the adult
female ; the forehead is hoary, and the head slightly striated with dark brown.

Another, younger bird (no. 6), marked as female, but which appears to us to be a young male, differs from
the last-mentioned bird in having the feathers of the breast mesially striped with dark brown, and the
feathers of the crown very distinctly marked with longtudinal lines of dark brown.

The nestling (no. 7) is entirely covered with short, close, white down ; and the colouring of the soft parts
appears very pale.

Until recently it was supposed that this Falcon was spread all over the eastern portion of the
Palsearctic Region ; but Radde in 1863 showed that it was really another species which represents
our Red-legged Falcon in that quarter of the globe : this eastern representative, which he called
Falco erythropus, var. amurensis, is distinguished in the adult male by having the under wing-
coverts white instead of dark plumbeous, the female and young bird also being different, and
resembling more the Hobbies in plumage. Shortly afterwards Mr. Gurney received F. amurensis
from Natal ; and in ' The Ibis' for 1868 (p. 42) a Plate of the species is given, and many inter-
esting details recorded respecting it. The occurrence of both species in Africa naturally raises
the question as to where their ranges coalesce ; and uncertainty on this point still remains in some
instances. It is, however, tolerably certain that F. amurensis is a more eastern bird, breeding in
China, where Swinhoe obtained it ; and it is, moreover, the one which occurs in India. In South
Africa both species have been observed ; but even here F. amurensis still seems to preserve its
eastern range, having only occurred once in Damaraland, where its place is taken by F. vesper-
tinus. On the other hand, F. amurensis goes further south than the last-named bird, as it has
been sent by Andersson from the Knysna.

The Red-legged Falcon does not often visit the British Islands. Yarrell cites four instances
of its occurrence in Norfolk in 1830, two in Yorkshire, and one in Durham, as also one in the
Devonport Museum ; and Stevenson tells us of one instance of its capture in Suffolk, in July 1862.
Besides these, we know of one other example being shot by our friend Mr. Howard Saunders at
Rottingdean in 1851. Thompson knew of only one specimen having been killed in Ireland, in the
summer of 1832.

In Sweden it is a rare visitor, as Nilsson never knew of its occurring there ; but Mr. Meves
has recorded five specimens as having been obtained in the country, viz. : — a bird of the second
year and a young female, now preserved in the Upsala Museum ; two young birds at Lund ;
and a female, in the second year's plumage, in Mr. C. Moller's collection, at Wedels-back.
Kjaerbolling relates that he shot a male at Laesoe, in Denmark, and observed the female at the
same time ; but no other instances of its occurrence there are known. In Finland it has lately
been more frequently observed, according to Dr. Malmgren ; and M. von Wright records the
capture of two examples, one as high as Uleaborg. This latter place is the most northern point,
at which the species has yet been found ; but it is a common bird in the Archangel Government,
and, according to Prof. Lilljeborg, particularly numerous near Kargapol. We have ourselves
seen an adult male shot near Archangel, now in the possession of Mr. David Morgan, of
Walthamstow. Meyer says it is found in the large forests of Esthonia and Livonia, where it
also nests, and is not rare near the Peipus Lake. We are indebted to Mr. Meves for the
following observations made during his recent journey in Russia : —

" I first observed the Red-legged Falcon, singly, early in June on the canal -journey between
Schlusselburg and Novaja Ladoga. On the 26th June I found it at Andorna, on Lake Onega,
on marshy meadows overgrown with willow bushes and straggling trees. On a dead fir tree five
or six used to perch in the evening, of which, however, I was only able to procure one adult
male. They seem to prefer high and open objects as a perching-place, and thence make, like
the Hobby, distant raids after larger insects. At night, between eleven and twelve o'clock, I
saw a large number, about thirty, not, however, in a close flock, hunting out of gunshot after
insects.

" I saw this bird later on at Archangel, but only singly ; and there it was very shy. On my
homeward journey I saw on the 13th August, about thirty versts north of Kargapol, from twelve
to fifteen individuals, chiefly young birds ; and they generally perched on the telegraph wires ; I
was, however, not fortunate enough to procure one, as I had only some almost useless powder I
had purchased on the journey."

Mr. Meves gives a careful description and measurements of this bird, which agree with those
of an adult male in our own collection. He further states that the bird in question had probably
been incubating, as it had two large bare incubation-spots on the abdomen. The stomach con-
tained insects, chiefly Libellulce.

As regards its distribution in Germany, Naumann writes as follows : —

" In this part of the country (Anhalt) I have seen it several times, and have observed that
it does not frequent the large dense forests, but affects groves which border on plains, meadows
covered with straggling bushes, and such-like open places, and here it prefers to dwell. In the
daytime it is generally flying about in the fields. As a migrant it comes to us at the end of April
or early in May, then proceeds to its breeding-stations, which probably are further to the north,
and returns to us on its road back to warmer climes, where it winters in August and September."

Naumann knew nothing of its breeding-habits; and we may here remark that the above
surmise of this most accurate observer has not proved correct; for, as we elsewhere state, the
breeding-stations of this bird are to the east and south, and it is only found far north in but few
localities, Archangel for instance.

c 2

96

Gatke includes the Red-legged Falcon in the avifauna of Heligoland. In Holland and the
Netherlands it has not yet been noticed ; but in Lorraine M. Godron mentions one specimen
having been killed near Nancy.

Degland and Gerbe state that it is rare in France, where, however, it has been said to have
bred. It is, however, certainly found during migration in the Department of Isere, and in the
southern departments. M. Bouteille (' Ornithologie du Dauphine,' t. i. p. 75) says that ten or
twelve of these birds were seen early in May 1824 for two days flying above the water in the
marshes on the plain of Tullius. They were not wild, and were nearly all killed. Since then
others have been seen in the same locality; and in 1842 another batch passed. It is stated that
there was a large migration of these birds in Provence during the month of November 1821.

Bailly notices it as rare in Savoy, but more abundant in Switzerland. In Spain, Lord Lilford
saw it once in Andalucia, but does not think it is a common bird in any part of the country.
This is also Mr. Howard Saunders's opinion ; and he has written to inform us that he has never
met with it himself in Spain, but that it is an occasional visitant to that country, principally to
the east coast, but years often elapse without its occurrence.

Salvadori considers it to be a spring bird of passage in Italy, and sends us the accompanying
note : —

" I can add very little to the excellent description given by Savi (Orn. Tosc. vol. i. p. 50).
This bird arrives here in May, and then for the space of twenty days is often seen on low marshy
ground, but not in every place indiscriminately. It is very common in the Campagna Romana ;
and in the Tuscan Maremma I have often seen it in the Marche, near the Adriatic shore. In
the autumn it is not to be found in Italy, except in the islands of Sicily and Malta (Doderlein &
Wright). I used to catch this Falcon very easily, on a damp plain near Umbria, by fixing a
grasshopper on the ground and covering it with limed twigs, when the bird would swoop either
in its flight or from a neighbouring tree down on the insect, and remain caught on the twigs.
They thrive well in confinement, and I used to feed them on raw ox-heart. To my knowledge
this bird has never bred in Italy."

In Styria, Seidensacher states, " It appears with us about the middle of May, on migration,
in larger or smaller numbers. Its passage through Styria is annual and regular, of which I have
convinced myself in several localities, as, for instance, at Peltan, where it appears every spring.
I have not had an opportunity of observing it in the autumn, but it has been shot also at this
season of the year."

Mr. Cochrane found it breeding in Hungary ; and Dresser has seen plenty of specimens in
the Pesth Museum, near which town he was informed it bred numerously. Messrs Elwes and
Buckley (Ibis, 1870, p. 75) state that these birds were "first noticed on the 25th of April, when
they appeared in considerable numbers near Sindal, in Bulgaria, and frequented ploughed fields,
where they hawked about for flies and insects. We cannot say whether they breed in this part
of the country ; but Mr. Farman does not mention the fact in his list." As regards their occur-
rence in Turkey, Mr. Robson writes to us as follows : —

" These birds are pretty common during the spring and autumn migrations in Asia Minor
and south-eastern Europe. They generally arrive in small flocks, and stay a short time in various
localities; stragglers constantly arrive and depart onwards two or three weeks after the main

97

body of the migration has passed. They prefer open tracts of country, sparsely covered with low
bushes, as their hunting-ground. I have seen as many as sixty flying backwards and forwards for
hours in fine weather, feeding after the manner of Bee-eaters ; but their movements are not so
quick. They also wander from valley to valley hunting for food. In damp weather they sit
much on the ground, moping like Swallows ; and they also rest on mounds of earth and low
bushes, whence they fly from place to place close to the ground after their beetle food. • At this
time they are easily approached ; but as soon as the weather brightens up they become more
lively and mount up and hover above the ground like a Kestrel, though perhaps not quite so
high, occasionally stooping down and capturing a beetle. A few young birds are sometimes
taken with limed twigs in the autumn by small-bird-catchers ; in summer I have never observed
them, their dates of arrival being about the middle of April, and their departure taking place
about the middle of September. Their food seems to consist almost entirely of Beetles. Male
and female both vary in intensity of colouring."

MM. Alleon and Vian (Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 18C9, p. 30G) say that during their passage
these Falcons are nearly as numerous on the Bosphorus as Hobbies, particularly in the autumn,
and are seen there every year. In southern Russia the Red-legged Falcon is very common,
arriving in April. As regards its eastern range, Radde (Reisen Siid-Ost Sib. p. 102) says that he
procured it in the Tumkinskian Steppe, in Western Siberia, and after that he met with no species
of Red-footed Falcon till E. amurensis appeared in the middle of Amoorland. Mr. Keith Abbott
(P. Z. S. 1834, p. 51) shot the present species at Trebizond; but De Philippi did not meet with
it during his travels in Persia.

Lindermayer says the Red-legged Falcon is found throughout all Greece, arriving late in
March or early in April, and breeding there, and, according to Erhard, is even said to winter on
the islands of the Archipelago. Lord Lilford records it from Corfu ; and the Rev. Dr. Tristram
states that in Palestine it is a summer migrant, but scarce. Specimens are also in our collection
obtained by J. H. Cochrane in Syria. Dr. von Heuglin says it visits north-eastern Africa in
winter, and he met with it in Lower Egypt in September. Mr. Gurncy kindly informs us that
he has a memorandum that Speke procured a specimen at Bogue, in Uzinza ; but he adds that
when he made this note he was not aware of the difference between E. vespertinus and E.
amurensis, so that perhaps the bird was really of the latter species. Professor Barboza du
Bocage has received a large series of the present species from Benguela, forwarded by Signor
Anchieta. And "in Damaraland," says the late Mr. Andersson, "it appears duriDg the wet
season in incredible numbers. They then come, not by thousands, but literally by tens of
thousands."

In Malta the present species is abundant during migration ; and we have numerous specimens
in our collection sent to us by Mr. Wright. In Algeria, Captain Loche states that it is common,
and breeds.

As regards the habits of the present bird, the best account we know of is given by A. von
Nordmann in ' Demidoff's Voyage dans la Russie Meridionale,' hi. p. 82, as follows : —

" The Red-footed Falcons appear with us in the first portion of April, and often in astonish-
ing numbers. They are generally accompanied by several other species, such as F. tinnunculus,
F. cesalon, and F. subbuteo. During the day the flocks disperse ; but about 4 p.m. they all

reassemble to commence their remarkable performances, which are continued through the
night. These consist in a sort of aerial evolution with which these birds amuse themselves;
they fly in a straight line to a fixed point, from which they return, and follow continually
nearly the same route, never passing certain limits in their flight to and fro.

" The large area of the botanical gardens at Odessa is a locality which they particularly
affect to carry on these evolutions, probably because, failing better-wooded localities in this
neighbourhood, these gardens serve as a refuge during the night. It is generally on warm
evenings with a clear sky that they perform these flights. The individuals forming the flock
seldom observe any but the right direction ; they do not fly very close, but at distances apart, at
the side or above each other. Their flight is soft, and they often sail without moving the wings.
Arrived at a certain point they turn rapidly, describing an acute angle. At the commencement
they fly very high ; but towards the evening they descend by degrees, and finish by descending so
low that they can be reached by a shot. After having continued these evolutions some hours,
the whole flock goes to rest, choosing trees which stand in close proximity. Here they keep as
thickly together as possible ; and I have seen twenty or thirty together perched on a tree of seven
years' growth, occupying chiefly the crown and large branches of the tree. They show so little
fear that they may be easily approached, particularly when one has not fired a gun. After having
rested about half an hour, they recommence their flight, which does not cease before dusk, when
they seek their quarters for the night. The whole flock appear to be guided by some particular
instinct ; for they wait until two or three individuals proceed towards some tree, and then the
whole, as if by signal, pitch on the same tree, which is covered with them. Their numbers are
sometimes so great that they cannot find room, and utter loud cries while disputing for the best
places. I have often got a dozen birds by firing into such a cloud of them, not counting the
wounded which escaped. I have often been astonished by the disproportionate numbers of
males and females. Once, out of eleven killed, but three were females ; and on another occasion
only two females out of nine. In the air I have also always counted more males than females.

" In the botanical gardens of Odessa are some dense conifers about 9 feet high, standing
close together, where these birds love to roost. I have tried to drive them from here by repeated
shots several times the same evening, but they always returned.

" These aerial excursions which we describe, are often continued to May, when these birds
disperse to undertake the work of nidification

" Their food consists chiefly of all sorts of insects ; and I have often found their stomachs
full of ants and coleoptera living together. The Red-legged Falcon seizes on the wing with ease
the large species of grasshoppers, locusts, and Neuroptera, such as Gryllus, Libellula, and JEschna.
Its proportionally long feet are of great service to it in doing this. It also searches amongst
the droppings of homed cattle for scarabsei of the genus Onthophaga.

" It is stated in several works that this Falcon sometimes catches small birds. I think these
are exceptional cases. I myself know of no instance, and I know that small birds exhibit no
fear of it. On the other hand, I have sometimes found in their stomachs remains of small
lizards. I can state another fact, viz. that they often use the nest of the Magpie. In the
country of Kowalewka, on the Bug, I found three nests occupied by this Hawk, the construction
of which left no doubt as to their having originally belonged to Magpies

99

" Early in October, sometimes rather later, they quit the south of Russia. A short time
before this the flocks reunite, and if the evenings are fine they again perform their evolutions.

" When one of these birds is wounded, and one goes to pick it up, it throws itself on its
back, and spreading its wings and tail defends itself with its claws. Its cry resembles that of
the Kestrel, but is uttered less often than that of the latter bird."

Radde (J. f. O. 1854, p. 54) says, in Southern Russia it " passes later than Falco
tinnwnculus, appearing about the end of April in small bands, but does not breed in the Crimea.
On the 20th April I saw between ten and twenty individuals on the Steppe, at Simferopol.
Insects of the Blaps and Pimelia families, which are so common here in the spring, form their
food. A month later I found them nesting on the Dnieper, for which purpose they appear to
prefer the high willows. A young male shot here had the dark grey dress of the adult male
mixed with reddish brown feathers like those in the plumage of the female. According to this
the bird does not assume the full plumage after the first moult ; but several years elapse before it
attains the fully adult attire."

Lord Lilford (Ibis, 1860, p. 8) writes as follows respecting the present species: —

"Arrives in Corfu occasionally in great numbers about the latter end of April. In the
spring of 1857 I did not hear of, or see, more than two specimens in the Corfu market; but in
April 1858 this species was very abundant in the Ionian Islands, particularly at Fano, a small
rocky island to the north of Corfu, celebrated as a favourite resting-place for immense flights of
Quails during their vernal migration. This Hawk appears to be very fearless of man. I have
watched a flock of five or six for upwards of an hour, during which time they often approached
within ten or fifteen yards of where I sat, though I was in no way concealed. As far as my
own observation goes, this species only remains for a few days in Corfu on its passage north-
wards. I have never heard of its occurrence in the island, except in April and May. The
stomach of a specimen which I skinned contained the remains of large night-flying moths.
Both this species and the Common Hobby are to be observed on the wing as late as 8 or 9 p.m.
The bird often alights on the ground, and runs with great ease and speed."

Dr. Th. von Heuglin found this bird to be an irregular winter visitant to north-eastern
Africa. It generally appeared in September in Lower Egypt, in companies of from six to twelve
individuals ; during the daytime it frequented the fields, hovering and picking up grasshoppers,
which are there abundant, and which it often devours on the wing. They will settle on the
durrah grass, small bushes, hedges, or fences, and towards night they fly off to their resting-
places — tamarisk or nabag trees. Old males are generally more abundant than females and
young birds. We observed them singly along the whole of the Nile, nearly to Chartum, once
in Southern Nubia as early as the 11th of September, generally, however, not before October.
In the spring it is very rare in Egypt, but according to Riippell occurs also in Arabia.

Naumann gives the accompanying particulars respecting the habits of the Red-legged
Falcon : —

" Its flight is light, often for short distances, sailing and pretty, but it lacks the arrow-like
swiftness of that of the Merlin or Hobby. It resembles more that of the Kestrel; but the
difference is slight, and can only be noticed by a close observer, and one cannot describe it in
words. So also with the voice, which is closely like that of its three above-mentioned relatives.

8

and still very different. A clear, shrill K~i, higher and clearer than the Kli of the Kestrel, is
uttered by this Hawk often, and repeated several times in succession, and it strikes the observer
more than its flight. Its note has a distant resemblance to the call of the Lesser Spotted Wood-
pecker (P. minor), but is clearer and much louder. It may be heard particularly towards
evening. Trees which have scathed tops are frequently its resting-place ; and it is often seen
resting, but not for long at a time. In the fields it may be observed flying from stone to stone, or
hillock to hillock, peering after its prey, but it does not fly about so continuously and perseveringly
as its congeners ; after sundown, however, its flight is more continuous, as it then hawks after the
beetles which swarm at that time.

The following details are given by Mr. Hewitson (' Eggs of British Birds,' vol. i. p. 28) : —

" Mr. Cochrane had the good fortune to meet with this species in Hungary during the
breeding-season ; and by him I have been supplied with a series of eggs to draw, and the following
very interesting information : —

" ' The Red-footed Falcons arrive in the country about the middle of April, and have laid
their eggs early in the following month. They make no nest for themselves, but, after a fight
with the lawful owners, take possession of those of the Crow, Book, or Magpie, altering or
repairing them according to their own taste.' Mr. Cochrane says that he has found their eggs in
a nest of Corvus corone, that they are sometimes even six in number, but most commonly four or
five, sometimes in isolated trees, at other times as many as six or seven pairs in one tree, in a
rookery, exactly as Books in England. Mr. Cochrane must have been as much surprised when
he found these birds breeding in company, as we were when we first discovered colonies of
Fieldfares in Norway."

We have before us nine eggs of this bird from Dresser's collection, all taken in Hungary.
Four of these, which seem to be typical specimens, were taken at Lazlar, near Festh, and received
from Mr. Johann von Frivaldsky, of the Festh Museum. The ground-colour of these eggs is pale
reddish yellow, and they are spotted and blotched all over with small spots of dark reddish
brown, resembling somewhat dark varieties of the eggs of the Hobby. Two others are somewhat
lighter, both in ground-colour and markings, and are much more of the Hobby type. The rest
have the ground-colour lighter, almost dirty white in colour, and have the surface markings
darker and larger, thus approaching more to the eggs of the Lesser Kestrel in appearance. In
size they vary from 1^- inch by 1^ down to 1|-J by 1^-, and in shape are oval.

In the Plate are depicted an old male and female and a young male. The specimens
described are in various collections, enumerated below. All are from Europe, with the exception
of spec. no. 4, which is a young male from Damaraland.

In the preparation of the above article we have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. Sliarpe and Dresser.

a. Moscow {Karl Sachse). b, c, d, e,f, g. Malta {Wright), h. Syria (Cochrane), i. Alexandria (S. Stafford
Allen, j. Damaraland (Andersson).

E Mus. Salvin and Godman.
a, b, c. Hungary (0. Salvin),

101

9

E Mus. Lord Lilford.
a. Tangiers (Irby).

E Mus. H. B. Tristram,
a. Asia Minor (Robson). b. Russia (L. Brehm). c, d. Damaraland (Andersson). e. Ovampo {Andersson).

E Mus. Lord Walden.
a. Asia Minor {Robson). b. Damaraland {Andersson).

E Mus. Howard Saunders,
a, b. Volga (Moschler).

9

383

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103

FALCO ELEONORJE.

(ELEONORAN FALCON.)

Falco eleonorce, Gene, Rev. Zool. 1839, p. 105.

Falco arcadicus, Licht. Isis, 1843, p. 329, taf. 1.

Falco concolor, Miihle, Orn. Griechenl. p. 14 (1844. nee Temm.).

Dendrofalco eleonorce, Bonap. Eev. Crit. Om. Europ. p. 131 (1850).

Dendrofalco arcadicus, Brehm, Naum. 1855, p. 268.

Dendrofalco eleonorce, Brehm, Naum. 1855, p. 268.

Hypotriorchis eleonorce, Bonap. Cat. Ois. Eur. Parzud. p. 2 (1856).

Falco dichrous, Erhard, Naumannia, 1858, p. 25.

Falco radama, Roch et Newton, Ibis, 1862, p. 266 (nee Bonap.).

Figurce notabiles.

Gene, Mem. R. Accad. Tor. ser. 2. torn. ii. taf. la, 2; Licht. Isis, 1843, taf. 1 ; Bonap.
Faun. Ital. Ucc. pi. 1 ■ Bree, B. Eur. i. p. 44 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 3. figs. 3, 5, 6 ;
Gurney, Ibis, 1869, pi. xvi. ; Schl. & Susem. Vogel Eur. taf. 53, 54.

3 ad. omnino nigricanti-fuliginosus, supra vix brmmeo tinctus, scapis plumarum anguste nigro indicatis :
remigibus nigricanti-brunneis, primariis extus et subtus et secundariis supra clarius scbistaceo lavatis :
tectricibus supracaudalibus lsetius schistaceis : cauda supra clare schistacea, subtus paullo rufescente,
fasciis nigricantibus indistinctis transnotatis, scapis supra nigris, subtus flavicantibus : genis sordide
schistaceis, iiigricantibus : subtus nigricans, vix rufescente tinctus : hypochondriis et cruribus clarius
schistaceis : subalaribus et subcaudalibus nigricanti-schistaceis, harum scapis distincte indicatis : rostro
corneo, versus basin mandibular flavicante : cera pallide viridi-flava : pedibus flavis : iride chocolatina.

§ supra nigricanti-fusca, schistaceo lavata : nucha indistincte rufescente : plumarum dorsalium scapis nigro
indicatis : remigibus nigricanti-schistaceis, secundariis angustissime fulvo marginatis : cauda supra
clarius schistacea, pennis centralibus fulvo marginatis, rectricibus omnibus fulvo terminatis, subtus
fuscescente, rufo et fusco profuse transfasciata, scapis supra brunneis, subtus albicantibus : loris albidis :
plumis orbitalibus et regione parotica cum vitta malari distincta nigricantibus : genis posticis et gutture
toto lsete fulvescentibus, scapis nigro distincte indicatis : corpore reliquo subtus lsetissime fulvo, parte
inferiore rufescente, plumarum omnium parte centrali brunnescente, strigam conspicuam formante :
subcaudalibus haud ita distincte striatis : cruribus castaneis, hneis nigricantibus longitudinaliter
striatis : subalaribus schistaceo-nigricantibus, plumis omnibus rufo marginatis : rostro ut in mari
colorato : pedibus viridi-flavis : iride chocolatina.

tj juv. similis feminae adultse, sed magis schistaceus, nucha, haud rufescente : pectore rufescente, scapis nigris
distincte indicatis, parte superiore nigricanti-schistacea, obscura, : hypochondriis et subcaudalibus
castaneis schistaceo clare lavatis : subalaribus nigricanti-schistaceis vix rufescente lavatis.

Adult Male. Above dark slaty grey, with just a tinge of brown here and there, rather clearer grey on the

Y

104

rump and upper wing-coverts, all the shafts distinctly indicated by a black line down the centre of the
feather ; quills blackish brown, washed with slate-colour, which is rather clearer on the secondaries,
the shafts plainly indicated, the lower surface of the wing somewhat paler, the primaries clearly washed
with grey on the under side; tail clear grey above, with indistinct fuscous edgings to the feathers,
blackish grey underneath, inclining to rufous near the base, and barred across with dull blackish
markings ; fore part of the cheeks blackish ; lower surface of the body blackish grey, j list tinged here
and there with rufous, all the shafts distinctly marked; the flanks, thighs, and under tail-coverts
clearer slate-colour; under wing-coverts deep blackish grey, almost entirely black; beak horn-blue,
lighter at the base ; cere pale greenish yellow ; feet pale lemon-yellow. Total length 15 inches,
cuhnen 075, wing 11*9, tail 7*5, tarsus l - 3.
Another male, apparently adult, also only differs from the foregoing example in being a little more rufous
on the abdomen.

Adult Female. Above dusky brown, strongly tinged with slate-colour, the shafts distinctly indicated ; the
nape strongly tinged with rufous, this colour, however, being for the most part confined to the base of
the feather, and hidden by the grey of those overlapping ; quills blackish grey, the secondaries more
inclining to brown, the primaries externally washed with grey, the lower surface much paler, and the
primaries strongly washed with grey on the under side ; tail slaty grey above, more rufous under-
neath, very thickly crossed with alternate bands of rufous and dusky, all the rectrices tipped with
fulvous ; lores whitish ; orbital region and ear-coverts as well as a distinct moustache black ; hinder
part of the cheeks and entire throat rich buff ; rest of the under surface of the body buff on the upper
part, gradually merging into rufous on the abdomen, all the centres of the feathers blackish, giving a
striped appearance, the sides of the upper part of the breast entirely blackish ; the under tail-coverts
less thickly marked ; the thighs deep chestnut, with longitudinal black shaft-stripes ; under wing-
coverts deep black, all the feathers edged with rufous ; bill horn-blue, paler at the base of the lower
mandible ; feet greenish yellow ; iris dark hazel-brown. Total length 15 inches, culmen - 85, wing
12 - 9, tail 7 - 5, tarsus 1-4.

Male not quite adult. Like the female in the " Hobby " plumage, but more pronounced slaty grey, under
surface of the body not so distinctly striped, but more obscured with dusky slaty grey; the thighs
deeper chestnut ; no rufous on the nape at all ; the under wing- coverts blackish, with scarcely any
admixture of rufous ; feet orange-yellow.

A still younger male, obtained on the Cyclades by Dr. Kriiper on the 25th of October, differs from the above
in having the feathers on the crown and back broadly margined with Hght rufous, the secondaries and
wing-coverts being also similarly margined ; the sides of the head and underparts generally are also
washed with light rufous buff, the chestnut on the thighs being replaced by that colour, and the dark
markings on the underparts being very distinctly defined. In this plumage it bears considerable
resemblance to the young Hobby already figured.

The present Falcon, first described by Gene from a specimen obtained by La Marmora in
Sardinia, is known only to inhabit the southern countries of Europe, Palestine, Syria, North-
western Africa, and Madagascar. It has in error been recorded from North-eastern Africa by
Dr. von Heuglin; but later researches proved that the species referred to by that eminent
naturalist was really Falco concolor, and not the present bird, which does not occur there.
The Eleonoran Falcon has been met with in Spain by Lord Lilford, who writes as follows : —
" We were returning from a drive in the pine-forest, from which we had just emerged on the

105

road near Valsain, when my attention was attracted by our cliico (who was on the box) exclaim-
ing, 'Que pajaro es aquelT and on looking up I saw a beautiful specimen of La Marmora's
Falcon (Hypotriorchis eleonoroe) passing us slowly at not more than ten yards' distance. This
individual was in the plumage which so nearly resembles that of the Hobby, and is, I believe,
that of the second year. We halted, and I had the pleasure, not unmixed with vexation, of
observing for several minutes the evolutions of three of this rare species without being able to
secure a specimen. All three were busily engaged in catching insects, over a marshy open spot
close to the road, seizing them in their talons, and shifting them into their mouths with great
ease and rapidity; they appeared totally regardless of our presence, and all repeatedly passed
within a few yards of our carriage. One of these Falcons was of a uniform sooty brown ; the
third was apparently in the same state of plumage as the first we noticed, but not nearly so
bright or distinctly marked. The extreme length of the wing of this Falcon immediately arrests
the attention of any one accustomed to Hawks. This peculiarity is even more striking in La
Marmora's Falcon than in the Common Hobby ; and the difference in size between the two
species is much more remarkable on the wing than I should have imagined. On informing
Manuel of what we had seen, he told me he had often observed small Hawks near the Escorial
engaged in catching insects, but never any of the H. eleonoroe. We revisited the spot, where we
sought these Falcons several evenings in vain; we never saw them again." Major Irby informs
us that he is only able to give us " the negative evidence of not having met with it anywhere,
either in Andalucia or on the Moorish side of the Straits. Nor does it appear to have been
noticed by Favier. The only reason I have for thinking it may sometimes occur at Gibraltar is
that Latham, quoting a letter of the Rev. John White, brother of Gilbert White, who was at
Gibraltar just a hundred years ago, says ' the Hobby nests on the rocks here ;' what could this be
but F. eleonoroe 1" And Mr. Howard Saunders states that, "although I felt certain that I had
seen a pair of this species near Seville in April 1869, I was not enabled to identify it positively
until this year (1870), when on the 19th and 20th of May I found it in great abundance at the
Island of Dragonera, off the west of Mallorca. This rock, for it is little more, is in appearance
similar to Gibraltar, though of somewhat less elevation, being only 1180 feet from the level of
the sea to the base of the lighthouse, which is perched on the summit. As the Falcons fly very
high, it is not easy to obtain specimens ; for, though they hawk for food over the sloping side
of the rock, it would require a prolonged stay to get a shot with a chance of the bird falling on
land. When sitting with my legs dangling over the precipice, a little below the highest peak,
these birds passed backwards and forwards, within a few yards, as thick as Swallows on a
summer's evening. They were in both the uniform sooty and also the Hobby-like plumage in
about equal numbers ; many of the latter, from their size, I judged to be females. One of the
fishermen informed me that he had once found a clutch of three eggs, which he described
correctly, and which of course he had eaten ; but the majority of the nests, placed in the holes
of the sheer precipice, are perfectly inaccessible, so much does the upper part overhang. The
Rock-Pigeons (C'olumba livia), of which there were great numbers, did not show the slightest
fear of the Falcons. The fishermen call them ' Esparver.'"

The present species has been recorded by Jaubert and Barthelemy-Lapommeraye from the
South of France, but is only a rare straggler to that country, as also to the mainland of Italy.

t2

106

Mr. A. B. Brooke saw a fine adult female that was killed at Coronata, near Genoa, on the 22nd
of June, 1871, and is now in the Museo Civico of that city ; and this gentleman, to whom we
are indebted for the loan of several specimens, also observed it in Sardinia, and sends us the
following notes respecting it : — " ' Toro ' and ' Vacca,' two barren uninhabited twin rocks rising
precipitously out of the sea off the south-west corner of Sardinia, form, perhaps, the principal
headquarters of these beautiful Falcons in tbe Mediterranean. 'Vacca' (which I visited) lies
eight miles from the Sardinian coast, being two miles south of the small thinly inhabited island
of S. Antioco. Its length is about a quarter of a mile, its breadth not quite so much. ' Toro '
is, I believe, rather the larger island of the two, and is situated seven or eight miles further
south. Owing to the extreme difficulty of landing, except during the calmest weather, these
islands are seldom visited, and that only by fishermen, who occasionally land to dry their nets.
Amongst the precipitous cliffs of ' Vacca,' especially those on the east side of the rock, are the
favourite haunts of the Eleonora Falcons, where they pass the entire year and breed. It was
early in May when I explored these cliffs; and although this Falcon is supposed not to breed
until much later in the year, yet I feel almost certain that they were nesting at the time of my
visit. If this be not so, I do not know how to account for the large number of birds (about
twenty or twenty-five pairs) that I found continually on the rock during the day-time, persistently
returning, and flying into the same holes, and that after having been fired at and wounded, as
was the case with many individuals. The manner in which they flew in circles, screaming, over
my head, exhibited a similar annoyance to that displayed by Peregrines when their nests are
disturbed. I also fancied several times I heard the young birds squealing in their nests. I
tried unsuccessfully to make this certain by reaching the breeding-holes, but found that it was
absolutely impossible, without proper ropes and tackle necessary for such an undertaking. On
the top of the cliffs I found numerous chosen places where the Falcons picked their prey
previous to carrying them down to their young. The remnants consisted solely of the remains
of Insessores, which must have been obtained on the opposite shores of Sardinia, as the only
species observed by me on Vacca was the Common Wheatear, of which I saw a solitary pair.
The stomachs of all the Eleonora Falcons examined by me contained the remains of small birds.
Two old males that I obtained were in their beautiful adult, dark, slaty blue plumage. A third,
a young male probably of the previous year, differed from adult females in the much darker
colour of his breast, and also in the colour of his feet, which were of a decided orange-yellow,
instead of the pale yellow tinged with green characteristic of the old female bird. The wings
of four specimens as they lay before me in the flesh reached almost exactly level with the end of
their tails, not extending beyond."

Mr. Howard Saunders when at Eome found nailed to a barn-door the dried remains of a
bird of this species which, from its size, he judged to be a female ; and Lord Lilford informs us
that he believes he saw specimens of this Falcon off Sicily in August 1858, and on the west coast
of Corfu in the summer of 1857. According to Canon Tristram, as stated in Mr. Wright's list of
birds of Malta and Gozo, Colonel Drummond Hay shot one in Malta, this specimen being now in
the colonel's collection. Most of the specimens which have lately found their way into collections
appear to have come from the islands of Greece through that indefatigable collector Dr. Th.
Kriiper, whose notes on the habits and nidification of this species we translate below. Until he

107

found this bird on the islands near Naxos in 1862, all the available information published
respecting its habits consisted of the few notes from the pens of Dr. Erhard, Lindermayer, and
Count von der Muhle. Dr. Erhard described it as a new species under the name of Falco
dichrous. Count von der Muhle speaks of it as Falco concolor; and Lindermayer includes in
his work, the ' Birds of Greece,' published in 1860, four species, Falco arcadieus, Lind., Falco
concolor, Temm., Falco eleonorce, Gene, and Falco dichrous, Erh., all of which must be referred
to the present species, which has by several authors been confounded with the true Falco
concolor, though the latter has not been known to occur in Europe. To the eastward the
present species has been found in Syria, a specimen having been, according to Gene, obtained
at Beyrout ; and Canon Tristram, writing on the ornithology of Palestine, says that " this bird
was several times seen by us in spring, but not in winter ; and a pair were found breeding in the
Bukaa, near the village of Zebdany, in the beginning of June. Here, as in Algeria, it seems to
be the very latest of all Raptores in its nidification." The present species does not occur in North-
eastern Africa, being there replaced by a closely allied species (Falco concolor, Temm.) ; but it has
been recorded from Madagascar ; for Mr. John Henry Gurney, whose authority on any question
relating to Raptorial birds is unimpeachable, writes as follows : — " The Norwich Museum possesses
the example of a Falcon, under the name of Falco radama, as having been taken at sea off the
east coast of Madagascar. I have the testimony of Mr. Edward Newton that this specimen closely
resembles the example preserved in the Museum of St. Denis, the capital of Reunion, and
described, under the name of F. radama, by M. Maillard in his work on that island, as having
been obtained there, which testimony is also confirmed by a comparison of the description with
the Norwich bird.. But further comparison also shows that this last agrees completely with a
specimen of H. eleonorce in a similar stage of plumage from the Greek archipelago ; and it there-
fore appears that the species last mentioned extends its range to Madagascar, and occasionally
also to Reunion — a fact of which MM. Schlegel and Pollen do not seem to be aware." Messrs.
Roch and Newton both met with this bird on Madagascar ; and the former obtained the specimen
above referred to by Mr. Gurney, respecting which the following particulars were given (Ibis,
1862, p. 266) : — " On my return journey from the capital, near the summit of the Ambodinangavo
mountain (the highest we crossed), a Falcon, apparently of this species, came hovering over the
peak, just as I fired right and left at a brace of Quail (Margaroperdix striata), one of which
dropped dead, the other flying over the hill-side. Instantly the Falcon, undisturbed by the
report of the gun, made a stoop at the falling Quail, within thirty or forty paces of where I
stood ; missing the bird it flew towards the rocky cliffs on the south side of the path, when it was
joined by its mate, carrying a bird. As they approached the cliffs, I could hear their young
crying. I (S. R.) obtained a specimen of this bird on leaving Tamatave towards the end of
November, when about fifteen miles from land ; after hovering about the ship for some time it
rested on the rigging, thus enabling me to shoot it. It is a young male in good plumage." As
will be seen from the above, the specimen referred to is in immature plumage ; and, considering
how closely the young of the present species and of Falco concolor resemble each other, we think
it not impossible that future research may prove that this latter only, and not Falco eleonorce, is
the bird found in Madagascar. This present species is found in Algeria ; and the bird referred
to by Captain Loche under the name of Hypotriorchis concolor is most probably this bird in the

108

dark stage of plumage. Mr. Osbert Salvia met with the true Falco eleonorce on the Eastern
Atlas, and writes that " on two successive mornings I had the gratification of observing this
species. We were encamped on the banks of the Chemora, on the south side of the hills that
skirt the southern shore of Lake Djendeli. On the 27th of May I had been out to collect
specimens of the Alpine Swift (Cypselus melba), many of which I had seen flying over the plain,
and was returning to breakfast, when one of four Hawks which I had previously been watching
with some curiosity (not knowing what they were) came over my head, and fell to a discharge of
dust-shot. It proved to be a splendid female of H. eleonorce, in full adult dress. The following
morning I saw one about the same spot, but failed to get a shot. It would appear that this
bird is a late breeder, as the eggs in the ovary were not at all forward, and the perfect state of
the feathers showed that no eggs had been incubated. The plumage of this specimen retained,
for some time, a peculiar smell, possibly owing to the nature of its. food, which, though I neglected
to examine at the time, I conjecture to have consisted principally of coleoptera. Of the colouring
of the fleshy parts of this specimen I have the following note : — Bill blue at the base, black at
the tip ; cere yellowish blue ; legs yellow ; claws black ; eyelid yellow ; hides dark brown."

The Eleonoran Falcon might, from its habits, be justly be called the Rock-Hobby ; for it
frequents the barren rocky islands, depositing its eggs on the ground amongst the stones, and
never nesting in a tree. Dr. Kriiper, during his stay on Naxos and the adjoining islands, care-
fully collected all possible information respecting this Falcon, and published the result of his
investigations in 1864 (Cab. Jouni. 1864, pp. 1-24) in extenso. The length of this article pre-
cludes us from inserting a full translation of it ; but we have extracted from it the following
notes : — " On my entomological expeditions, undertaken in the month of April, from the town of
Naxos, I but seldom observed this Falcon, and on the 25th of that month I saw the first small

flock flying above Tragsea On the 6th of August I visited the islands where these Falcons

breed, and landed first on Guiduronisi (Donkey-island), which is the largest of them. This
island is about a quarter of a German mile in extent, and has very steep shores, with a landing-
place sheltered from the north wind, the highest point on the island being about 300 feet above
the sea. We had hunted over about half the island without seeing a Falcon ; but when we
reached the most northern point a Falcon flew up about twenty-five paces in advance of me off
some stony ground ; and hurrying to the place, I found a nest containing two eggs. A little
distance further on another bird flew up, and I again found two fresh eggs." Dr. Kriiper further
goes on to record the finding of several more nests on the small islands, on one of which (on the
22nd of August) he caught the old female on her eggs. He continues : — " It does not build a
regular nest of twigs, but deposits its eggs on the bare ground in the sand, without any thing in
the way of a nest under them. Only in one instance did I find a slight nest under them ; but it
was merely an old Gull's nest which had been utilized. The eggs are generally placed under a
small or large stone, so as to be sheltered from the rain ; sometimes one finds them concealed
far under a rock, and I found this the case on several islands ; often, however, they were not
thus protected. There are two sorts of breeding-places — islands having steep cliffs, and those
that rise gradually out of the sea. Tragonisi and Stapodia belong to the former ; and there the
Falcons breed in security in the holes and precipices. In other islands where the shores are
only steep in places, the Falcons do not seem to affect those parts, but generally deposit their

109

eggs on the top amongst the stones. It does not breed all over the island, but generally near
the shore, about thirty to forty paces from parts washed by the sea. If the bird uses the same
nesting-spot annually I cannot say; but I believe that suitable places are annually inhabited.
The number of eggs generally is two or three; and I have never yet found four or five.
According to my experience I found as often three as two eggs. When three eggs were in the
nest I often found only two fertile, and have only found one fertile in some cases where two were
deposited. On the 6th of October my servant found an egg by the side of a young bird about
fourteen days old, and on the 7th of October again one egg in a nest which the young birds had
left. Dr. Erhard considered his F. dichrous a resident, but does not give his reasons. On the
other hand he considers F. eleonorce to be a summer resident. Up to the end of September I
looked on F. eleonorce as a resident on the Cyclades — that is, that it spent the winter there, as I
was assured by several hunters was the case. At the monastery of Myconos, where the Eleonoran
Falcon was well known, I was assured that it migrates away, as it was never seen in the winter.
I cannot say which of these two statements is correct ; but my opinion is that the Falcon, with its
young, spread themselves about the larger islands and on the coasts of the mainland of Greece,
and are therefore less seldom seen. As it is a frequenter of the sea, I do not think that it leaves
the sea and undertakes long journeys into Asia and Africa. On the coast of Asia Minor examples
have lately been procured ; but, on the other hand, it has not been recorded from Egypt. On
Naxos, which, during the winter, is visited by numbers of sea-birds, no Falcons remain. On
Myconos, where the cliffs are very steep, and consequently few sea-birds are found, there are also
but few Falcons.

" All the summer I believed that the Eleonoran Falcons remained about the islands where
they breed, and thence undertook daily wanderings. When on Myconos I ascertained from the
herdsmen who lived all the year round on Tragonisi, that the Falcons appear on the island
in April, and in October (when the young can fly) leave again. That the latter is the case I
myself ascertained when on Tragonisi, from the 2nd to the 12th of October, as they greatly
diminished in numbers.

" The voice of the Eleonoran Falcon much resembles that of the Peregrine, but is much
weaker. In the breeding-season, When uttered in play, it sounds like kek kek. The alarm-note
is a call of three syllables, like wek wek wek, the emphasis being equally laid on each of the
three syllables, or chiefly on the second. When calling to its mate, it calls twice wek wek, the
latter being deepest ; and when quarrelling I have heard them utter these notes as loud as if
they were uttered by Parrots.

" With regard to the food of the Eleonoran Falcon, it consists chiefly of birds caught by the
Falcon and placed unplucked before the young. I cannot give a full list of the birds on which
it feeds, as, owing to the heavy storms, I was prevented from visiting the breeding-places at the
proper season. Near the nests I found remains of the following birds, viz. : — Oriolus galbula,
Upupa epops, Perdix cotumix, Columba livia, Lanius collurio, Muscicapa grisola, and others that
I could not make out.

" As the Eleonoran Falcon is a noble Falcon, and in early ages was used for falconry, I
thought that it lived entirely on birds, and was therefore surprised to find, during the breeding-
season, castings containing remains of beetles near the nests. I supposed that these belonged to

110

8

the birds the Falcons had killed ; and I found, later on, similar castings near young birds scarcely
a fortnight old. In October only did I ascertain the true state of affairs. My servant brought
me word to Tragonisi that in following a young Falcon he had climbed up a precipice and found
there a nest-hole in which were remains of grasshoppers and a lizard occurring on Myconos, the
so-called thorn-lizard (Stellio vulgaris), called, from its resemblance to the crocodile, by the
Greeks KpoKoSeiXoc. Although I to a certain extent believed his statement, still I was not
satisfied, as he produced no proof. On the following day he found another deserted nest con-
taining similar remains, of which he brought me the entire tail of the so-called crocodile lizard,
and the elytra of a large water-beetle (Hydrophilus -piceus). In the stomachs of all the Falcons
I examined I found only remains of birds ; and it therefore seems as if they only seldom feed on
insects or amphibious animals. I have never observed them hoveling in the air and picking up
their prey from the ground like the Red-footed Falcon."

The Eleonoran Falcon is not so very unfrequently kept in captivity. Mr. Osbert Salvin saw
three young birds in the Zoological Gardens at Marseilles ; and Lord Lilford, who has kept this
bird alive, writes to us as follows : — " I heard from Castang, of Leadenhall Market, in October
1868, that he had some Barbary Falcons alive, and telegraphed to him to send two down to me
to Invernesshire, where I then was. The birds arrived safely, and turned out to be two nestlings
of the present species, with the down still appearing in patches through their young feathers.
I subsequently bought two more of the same venture. One bird only of these four survived the
winter of 1868-1869 ; and a more charmingly docile Hawk I never saw. She used to fly at large
about the place, and would come immediately to a call or whistle, and stoop at the lure, but was
shy at coming to the fist, a peculiarity that I have often noticed in training the Common Hobby
(F. subbuteo). This bird was eventually chased and driven quite out of sight by some Rooks, and
we never saw her again. I am sorry that my best specimens of this species are stuffed and
mounted, so that I cannot send them to you for examination. The young birds above alluded
to were brought from Mogador to London, having been taken from the nests in sea-cliffs near
that town."

The egg of the Eleonoran Falcon bears considerable resemblance to that of the Hobby, but
is somewhat larger in size. We have now before us six eggs of this species from Dresser's
collection, all obtained by Dr. Kriiper on the islands near Naxos. None of these eggs bears the
least resemblance to the pale washed-out variety figured by Dr. Bree from Thienemann's figure
of the egg of this bird, but are, as a rule, quite as richly coloured as the eggs of the Hobby.
The ground-colour of these eggs is pale greyish buff or stone ; and the markings, which are spots
or blotches of rufous, are sometimes distributed over the entire surface of the egg, or else
collected at one end ; one specimen is very richly blotched at one end, the other being almost
unspotted. In size these eggs vary from Iff by Iff inch to If J by lf§ inch. Our friend
Dr. E. Rey gives the average size of forty eggs as 4T7 by 33 - 2, the largest measuring 44-25 by
32"5, and the smallest 38 - 75 by 31-0 millimetres respectively.

The adult male in the grey plumage described and figured by us, is one of the finest we
have ever seen, and was shot by Mr. A. B. Brooke himself on the island of Vacca, off the south-
west coast of Sardinia. The adult female in the " Hobby " plumage, of which we have given a
description and figure, is also in Mr. Brooke's collection, and was obtained by him on the same

Ill

occasion. The young male described is also one of his specimens ; and the younger male was
sent to us by our friend Dr. Th. Kriiper, and is now in Dresser's collection.

In the preparation of the above article we have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, 6. Island of Vacca, Sardinia, May 5th, 1871 (A. B. Brooke), b, c, 6 ad. Cyclades, September 24tli;
d, 2 ad. August 20th, 1863; e, 2 ad. August 25th, 1864; /, 2 ad. August 19th, 1864; g, <5 juv. October
25th, 1864 {Dr. Th. Kriiper).

E Mus. A. B. Brooke.

a, b, c, 6, 2, 6 juv. Island of Vacca, Sardinia, May 5th, 1871 (A. B. B.).

E Mus. Lord Lilford.

a, b, 6 juv. ; c, 2 ad. ; d, 2 juv. Tragonisi, Cyclades, October 1862 (Dr. Th. Kriiper) . e, $ juv. Mogador
(Castang).

E. Mus. Howard Saunders,
a, b, 6 , c, 2 ■ Cyclades, August 1864 (Dr. Th. Kriiper).

112

384

FALCO T1NNUNCULUS

xn

113

FALCO TINNUNCULUS.

(COMMON KESTREL.)

Falco tinnunculus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 127 (1766).
Cerchneis tinnuncula, Boie, Isis, 1828, p. 314.
JEgypius tinnunculus, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 29 (1829).
Falco fasciatus, Eetz. Faun. Suec. p. 70 (1800).
Falco brunneus, Bechst. Ornith. Taschenb. p. 38 (1802).
Cerchneis murum, Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 70 (1831).
Cerchneis media, Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 72 (1831).
Falco rufescens, Swains. B. of W. Afr. i. p. 109 (1837).
Falco interstinctus, Maclell. P. Z. S. 1839, p. 154.
Tinnunculus alaudarius, Gray, Gen. of B. i. p. 3 (1840).

Faucon-cresserelle, French ; Thurm-Falke, German ; TaarnfalJc, Danish ; Tornfalk, Swedish ;
Taamfalk, Norwegian ; Cernicalo, Spanish ; Francelho, or Peneireiro, Portuguese ;
Gheppio, Italian.

6 . capite pulchre cinereo, plumis medialiter nigro striolatis : fronte et linea angusta superciliari albicante ;
genis argenteo-cinereis : striga mystacali ab oculo anteriore orta nigricanti-cinerea : gutture et colli
lateribus fulvescenti-albidis : dor so rufo, ubique maculis nigris triangularibus notato : dorso imo cum
uropygio et supracaudalibus clare cinereis, scapis obsolete notatis : tectricibus alarum superioribus
dorso concoloribus : remigibus nigricantibus fulvescente marginatis, pogonio interno transverse albo
fasciato, secundariis runs dorso concoloribus : cauda cinerea versus apicem nigro late transfasciata,
fulvescente terminata : corpore subtus rufescente, pectore superiore nigro longitudinaliter striate,
hypoebondriis maculis pyriformibus nigris notatis : abdomine medio cum subcaudabbus pallide rufe-
scentibus immaculatis : cruribus dilute castaneis, immaculatis : subalaribus albis nigro variis : rostro
plumbescenti-corneo, ad basin flavicante : pedibus flavis.

2 ■ rufa, nigro late transfasciata, secundariis albicante terminatis : capite nigro longitudinaliter striato : genis
albicantibus : subtus rufescens, nigro medialiter variegata : gutture cum cruribus et abdomine imo
fulvescentibus, fere immaculatis : cauda rufa nigricante transfasciata, versus apicem latius, apice
fulvescente : rostro et pedibus ut in mari coloratis.

Adult Male. Head clear blue-grey, tbe featbers mesially streaked with narrow black shaft- stripes, these
being broader on the nape ; forehead and eyebrow whitish ; cheeks silvery grey ; a distinct moustache
from the front of the eye blackish grey ; sides of the neck fulvescent, with narrow little streaks ; back,
scapularies, and wing-coverts rufous, marked with triangular black spots near the apex of the feather,
some of these spots being larger than others ; quills blackish, margined with dirty white, the inner web
transversely barred with whitish ; the secondaries rufous, like the back, the outer ones varied with
black bars, the inner ones almost entirely rufous, with a black triangular spot near the tip ; lower part
of the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts clear blue-grey; tail blue-grey, with a broad black band

114

running across the end, the tips of the feathers fulvous ; throat fulvous, unspotted ; under surface of
the body dull rufous, the upper part of the breast streaked with narrow lines of black, the sides of the
body marked with larger pear-shaped spots ; lower part of the belly and under tail-feathers fulvescent ;
thighs pale chestnut ; under wing-coverts white, with a few irregular black spots ; bill yellow at base,
black at tip, bright blue in the middle ; cere and orbital region yellow ; feet yellow ; iris brown.
Total length 14 inches, culmen - 7, wing 8 - 4, tail 7'0, tarsus 1*3.

Adult Female. General colour above rufous, transversely banded with broad bars of black, the secondaries
tipped with whitish ; head longitudinally striped with black ; tail rufous, banded with black, the bars
nearest the extremity of the tail being broadest, the tips of the feathers fulvescent ; chin and abdomen
pale fulvous ; breast dull rufous, longitudinally striped with black ; the flanks indistinctly banded ; bill
and feet as in male.

Young Male. Resembling generally the old female, but somewhat lighter in colour. The first signs of
adolescence appear on the upper tail-coverts, which become bluish grey ; and afterwards the tail itself
gets gradually grey, the black bars by degrees disappearing, while the blue head is the last to be
donned. We have seen a specimen shot in December which had the blue tail of the male, but still
preserved the rufous head of the female, while examples killed as late as May still have slight remains of
black bars on the tail, and a dash of rufous on the head.

The Common Kestrel ranges over the entire Palsearctic Region, being found throughout Europe
and Siberia, visiting India in the winter, and also migrating, but apparently in more limited
numbers, to Africa. In some southern latitudes, however, where the Kestrel is a resident
species, the bird assumes a dark phase of coloration, and thus is represented by several local
races. Professor Schlegel, in his Catalogue of the Leiden Museum, has drawn attention to these
varied forms, and enumerates under the heading of the ordinary species examples from all parts
of Europe, Africa, and Ceylon ; specimens from Nepal, he finds, are rather darker in tint, and in
those from Japan and Northern China he remarks that the colours are still more deep, and the
black stripes on the head of the old male much more pronounced. These latter are the birds
figured in the 'Fauna Japonica' as Tinnunculus alaudarius, var. japonicus. In specimens from
Southern China, Professor Schlegel observes that the size appears to be a little smaller, and the
coloration even darker than in the Kestrel of Japan.

The learned professor, who is one of the first authorities on Falcons, is no doubt right in
assigning to these dark-coloured Kestrels subspecific rank only, as even within the limits of the
Western Palsearctic Region one of these races is met with. In Madeira the Kestrels are much
darker ; and we are indebted to our friend Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown for a specimen shot in that
island by Mr. A. J. Grant in November 1862. Compared with English female Kestrels the bird
in question is not only darker in all its tints, which incline to very deep rufous on all parts of the
body, but also in having the cross bands on the tail much broader, while at the same time the
centre tail-feathers are strongly washed with blue. A female specimen from Abyssinia exactly
agrees with the Madeira skin ; and a male specimen from the same country, in Lord Walden's
collection, is much darker than European specimens. This curious difference in the resident
Kestrel of North-eastern Africa has not been overlooked by Dr. von Heuglin, who also remarks
the broader bands on the tail. Professor Sundevall has likewise drawn attention to this dark
race, but says that the general style of plumage agrees with that of the European bird,

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apparently overlooking the difference in the barring of the tail-feathers. This dark-coloured
race is doubtless the bird called by Eiippell Tinnunculus rupicolus, and alluded to by Bonaparte
as "Tinnunculus rupicolce-formis, Wiirtemberg," a name apparently never published and not
alluded to in Dr. von Heuglin's recently published work on the Ornithology of North-eastern
Africa.

Besides all the examples we have examined in collections of European birds in this country,
we have also seen a large number of Indian specimens in Lord Walden's collection, and we are
further indebted to Mr. R. Swinhoe for the loan of a beautiful series of Kestrels from China.
We have critically examined all these specimens, and we believe that the Kestrel of China is the
same as the Japanese Kestrel, called by authors Tinnunculus japonicus. We cannot, however,
consider this eastern bird to be specifically distinct from the Common Kestrel of Europe, although
we confess that the dark-coloured individuals at first sight look very different. But in the series
which Mr. Swinhoe has placed before us all shades of colour are represented, from very light
fawn to very dark rufous. Neither can we satisfactorily account for these changes ; for specimens
of both light and dark forms occur at Amoy in the same month of the year. We notice, how-
ever, that the majority of the pale-coloured individuals were obtained in the months of October
and April, while most of the dark-coloured specimens were procured between November and
February; so that the light-coloured race may be the resident Kestrel, and the dark-coloured race
the winter visitant, which would be exactly the contrary to what obtains in Europe and the
Western Palsearctic Region generally. The tail in most of the dark rufous specimens from
Japan and China is washed with blue, as in the Madeiran and Abyssinian races ; but the breadth
of the bars on the rectrices varies ad infinitum, and in the eastern races, at least, does not seem to
be a character of any great importance.

In a series of specimens which Lord Walden was kind enough to submit to us from
India, Ceylon, and Burmah, we noticed many very pale-coloured specimens along with other
individuals which it would have been impossible to distinguish from British-killed Kestrels, so
that there can be no doubt that the European bird goes into India ; and it also probably occurs
in Northern China ; but at present we believe that it is the dark Japanese form which takes its
place in Southern China, and thence northward to Japan.

The present species is a common bird in Great Britain, breeding everywhere. It is to a
certain extent migratory, as noticed by Waterton; and Mr. Hepburn, in a note contributed to
Macgillivray's ' British Birds,' says so also. Macgillivray himself considers that in the districts
bordering the Firth of Forth they are as numerous, if not more so, in winter than in summer,
and that probably, " like the Merlin, this species merely migrates from the interior to the coast."
In the north of Ireland Thompson considers them to be quite as numerous in winter as in summer
in their usual haunts.

Mr. Stevenson in the ' Birds of Norfolk ' says : —

" Migratory specimens from the north also appear on our coast in considerable numbers
towards the end of autumn, when many are trapped and shot on the hills by the sea-side,
particularly about Northrepps and Beestar, near Cromer. It is probable, I think, that some of
our native birds proceed further south during severe weather ; and I believe, as a rule, like our
common Song Thrush, they quit altogether the more exposed parts of the country in the depth

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4

of winter. In more sheltered localities, however, they are observed at all seasons. A pair
which regularly frequent the ruined steeple of Keswick church, near Norwich, have been seen,
by my friend Mr. Edwards, skimming over the fields in search of prey whilst the snow was lying
deep ; and the thrashing out of a stack in autumn or winter is sure to bring them at once to the
spot to seize, at a respectful distance, on the mice thus expelled from their snug quarters."

Nilsson writes : —

" In Southern Sweden it is one of our commonest birds of prey, as it is one of the hand-
somest. It is found, however, more in the southern than the northern part of our peninsula.
In the north it is scarce, and more so as one approaches the polar circle, within which it seldom
penetrates. Still it is found far to the north, and is not rare at Trondhjem, and at Tarroch, on
the Bindelsfiord, on the borders of Helgeland, where it inhabits the high cliffs. I have also
found it inhabiting the fells of Western Norway, far above the tree-growth, and nearly at an
altitude where the snow always lies. Here it inhabits high steep cliffs."

Mr. Wolley's collection contained four eggs of the Kestrel taken at Petaja-vaara, Kemi
Lappmark, about lat. 68° N., in May 1857. The people who obtained these did not know the
bird ; so that it appears to be a rare bird in Lapland. In recording the above fact in his
' Ootheca Wolleyana,' Professor Newton adds the following editorial note: — "Mr. Wolley
suggests that ' the unusual numbers of several kinds of mice ' had attracted this species so far
beyond its usual limits. Previously to 1857, he was aware of only one instance of its occurrence
north of the Gulf of Bothnia. That happened on the 13th of September, 1855, when he and I
were approaching Haparanda, on the Swedish side of the Tornea river. We then saw, and for
some minutes watched, an undoubted Tinnunculus alaudarius hovering over a corn-field by the
road-side. Its occasional breeding further north was, however, known to Herr Wallengren
(Naumannia, 1855, p. 134)."

Von Wright states that it is one of the commonest Hawks in Finland ; and Mayer says it is
common all over Livonia, as also in Denmark, according to Kjserbolling. It is likewise abundant
throughout Holland and the Netherlands. De Selys-Longchamps records it as everywhere
common in Belgium, inhabiting equally woods, plains, rocks, or old towers, and is one of the
greatest enemies of Pigeons. De la Fontaine, commenting on the above statement, says that he
has never noticed the fact, as his experience is that the Pigeons and Kestrels live and nest
together in the same walls in perfect harmony. All over Germany, as well as throughout France,
Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Sardinia, the Kestrel is a very common bird.

With regard to its occurrence in Spain, Mr. Howard Saunders kindly sends us the accom-
panying note : —

"Tinnunculus alaudarius is called in Spanish 'Cernicalo' and 'Primilla.' It is very
abundant throughout Spain, great numbers frequenting the wooded districts, where they nest
in the trees, often appropriating old Magpies' nests; but in many cases they evidently make
their own. In the mountain-ravines, where they deposit their eggs in holes of the rocks, they
are extremely numerous; but their numbers are particularly displayed in such cities as Seville
and Cordova, where many hundreds may be seen towards sunset hovering round the towers of
the Giralda and the Mezquita, the belfries being whitened with their excrement and paved with
their castings, which principally, indeed almost entirely, consist of remains of insects. In the

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day they may be seen by three or four hundred at a time, now hanging motionless over the
plains near Seville (as the Ettrick Shepherd said of the Merlin,

As if let down from the heaven there
By a viewless silken thread) ,

now dipping down for a moment upon some beetle on the ground. I am at present speaking of
the winter months, when the main arrival of the Lesser Kestrel (F. cenchris) has not taken place,
as the latter bird does not generally come till March, though some undoubtedly do remain all
the time. I fancy that the two species interbreed, or that there is an intermediate race, as on
the 16 th May I took a white-clawed female off her nest in the Cathedral of Seville, whose eggs
were typical eggs of T. alaudarius, of the largest description, quite unlike any that I have ever seen
of F. cenchris, which, moreover, had scarcely begun to lay, whereas these eggs were very much
incubated. In length of wing and other dimensions this female is decidedly larger than the
female F. cenchris, and is barely, if any, smaller than average F. tinnunculus (female) from other
localities. I may add that in many birds resident in Spain there is a tendency to run smaller in
size and brighter in colour than more northern specimens."

Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake considers it to be a very common bird in Tangier and Eastern Morocco ;
and it is found in Tripoli, as recorded by the late Mr. W. T. H. Chambers. In Algeria Loche
says it is plentiful ; and Mr. Salvin states that it is very abundant throughout the Eastern Atlas.

In the Sahara, Dr. Tristram observes : —

" The Kestrel resorts to every part of the country, except the plains. In the oases he preys
on the Palm-rat, which nestles in the crown of the date-trees, or he pursues the large beetles at
dusk through the gardens. In the ravines he finds abundance of Marmots (gundi) ; and in the
dayats I have often watched him pouncing upon the Jerboas as they leave their holes."

In South-eastern Europe the present species is everywhere distributed. Lindermayer says
it is a resident in Greece, but much less numerous in the winter. Lord Lilford, however, found
it not common in Epirus and Corfu during his residence in those countries.

Mr. C. Farman says : —

" Throughout the whole country lying between the Black Sea and the Danube the Kestrel
is abundant, and is in fact the commonest of all the birds of prey. It seems to have no partiality
for any particular spot, it being equally abundant on the shores of the two lakes of Devna, the
Pravidy valley, the moorlands about Shitangick, and the forest country to the east of Eodgrad."

Respecting the occurrence and habits of this bird in Turkey, Mr. T. Eobson writes us as
follows : —

" This species is numerous in Turkey in Europe and Asia Minor, and particularly so during
the spring and autumn migrations. In spring they arrive and pass in small flocks, and during
the winter are not so numerous as at other seasons of the year. During the summer they are
widely distributed throughout Turkey, and are partial to towers, aqueducts, and large reservoirs
for nesting-places ; but they also build in holes in the walls of houses in villages and populous
towns, as also under the eaves of farm-buildings in the country. The cup-shaped base of the
large branches of the oriental plane trees often also affords them a secure and unnoticed nesting-
place.

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118

" In localities where a few isolated trees are left standing on mountain-sides or plains to
afford shelter from the midday sun to the flocks, the Kestrel also takes possession of the deserted
nest of a Crow, Hawk, or other bird, where it rears its progeny unmolested amidst the bleating
of the sheep and the barking of dogs &c. In the foundation of these nests occupied by Kestrels
the Spanish Sparrow often builds, and rears its brood in perfect security, undisturbed by the
Hawks. In this country the Kestrel feeds chiefly on beetles and locusts, but also on mice and
small lizards ; they hover over and stoop to locusts and beetles as they do to mice.

" In the autumn young birds of the year are often taken on limed twigs by the bird-catchers,
as they attack the birds caught on the twigs, and, becoming entangled, are easily taken. The tail
of the old female assumes, I have observed, the colour of that of the male. They are given to
resting on telegraph-posts and wires, and as many as twenty-four have been counted sitting a
little apart from each other at one place.

" In the autumn and winter they roost at night principally on the ledges and crevices of
rocks, and during the day may often be observed sitting on mounds of earth, and detached pieces
of rock which are scattered about the country, on the look-out for beetles &c.

" With us in Turkey this species is more numerous than any of the Falcon tribe, and is con-
stantly resident in the country."

In Southern Russia Professor von Nordmann states that it is very common all over the
country, as well in the towns and villages as on the plains and steppes. It generally migrates
on the approach of winter ; but when the cold is not severe, many remain. Eversmann observed
it in March in Bokhara.

How far to the eastward the range of the true Falco tinnunculus extends we are unhappily
in doubt, as in the case of so many of the Western Palsearctic birds. On this point we can only
give the evidence verbatim of the Russian travellers. Pallas says that it is found throughout the
whole of Russia and Siberia, but appreciably diminishing in numbers towards the eastern part of
the latter country. From the middle of August, as soon as the young are reared, they abound
in the bare southern deserts, and in Tauria even to the middle of September, when they fly
southward. In Astrachan they are looked upon as the heralds of autumn.
Dr. von Schrenck (Amur-Eeise, p. 233) writes as follows : —

" Undoubtedly the Kestrel is found at the head-springs of the Amoor river, as also on the
Lower Amoor. On the rocky shore of the Lower Ussuri, near Dschoada, I saw on the 16th of
August a bird which I consider must have been a Kestrel. This seems to show that the Kestrel
extends further eastward in Siberia than Pallas supposed ; indeed it probably occurs up to the
east coast of the continent and the islands, as Siebold found it in Japan."
Dr. G. Radde has more recently recorded the following notes : —

" The Kestrel is much rarer in East Siberia than the other small Hawks, but has been found
there by the later travellers. On my journey to East Siberia I found it common as far as Omsk,
but eastward of that only occasional. During the migration I saw them in the Selenga valley,
near the Gusinoi Lake, early in September, and late in March near the Onon, between Sasutsche
and the new fortress of Tschindantsk, and in July 1859 in the high mountains as I passed from
the Oka to the Irkut, and had to pass over heights above the tree-region (7000 ft.). I did not see

119

it in the Central Amoor ; but it is doubtless found here, as Schrenck observed it on the Ussuri, and
Dr. Maack brought it from the headwaters of the Amoor."

We believe that the observations of Pallas regarding the range of the Kestrel are correct, as
borne out to a great extent by Radde. The Amoor bird must certainly be the same as the
Japanese dark race, and therefore is not the true F. tinnunculus. We believe also that the birds
observed by Eadde in the Baikal region belonged also to the Japanese form.

The Kestrel appears to be still an unsettled species, and has doubtless been at one time a
thorough migrant from Europe. In the East it still follows its migratory instincts, but in the
west of Europe has become more or less sedentary. The great gatherings above alluded to by
Pallas seem to point to the southern deserts of Siberia and Central Asia as the place whence the
southward migration of the Kestrel still emanates in full force ; and from that point the line of
flight seems to take a southerly direction. Part of the migration populates India in the cold
season, and part proceeds in the direction of North-eastern Africa, as we shall presently see.

Major Irby has stated that in Oudh and Kumaon it is common during the cold season, and
occasionally seen during the rains ; and Dr. Jerdon, in his ' Birds of India,' writes as follows : —

" The Kestrel is a cold-weather visitant to India, one of our earliest, indeed, and it does not
leave till April. It is most abundant, being found in every part of the country, and at all
elevations. Its chief food is lizards ; but it also eats rats and mice, insects, especially grasshoppers
and locusts, and rarely young or sickly birds. It constantly hovers over a spot where it has
observed something move, and, when certain of its presence, drops down on it with noiseless wing.
Blyth mentions that parties of twenty or thirty individuals may be seen together beating over the
cultivated lands in Lower Bengal. This I have never witnessed. It does not breed in this
country. Dr. Horsfield, in his ' Catalogue,' apparently quoting from Mr. Blyth, says, ' It breeds
in April in lofty trees, and also on the top of minarets.' I imagine he must have been quoting
from some other naturalist, not an observer in India. It used to be trained occasionally in
Europe to hunt Larks, Quails, and other small birds ; but it is scouted by the Indian falconers as
an ignoble race."

Following the line of migration in a south-westerly direction, we find that the Kestrel was
obtained in Mesopotamia by Commander Jones, and at Trebizond by Mr. Keith Abbott. The
late Mr. Strickland has recorded it as rare near Smyrna. Mr. Gurney has received it from
Beyrout, in Syria. In Palestine it appears to be sedentary; but the line of migration must
sometimes, if not always, traverse this country. The following are Dr. Tristram's observations on
the bird as observed by him in the latter country : —

" The Kestrel is excessively common in every part of the country throughout the year, up to
the confines of the southern desert. In the Ghor, and in the eastern forests among the ruins of
Amman and Gerash, in the desolate gorges of the Dead Sea, among the luxuriant gardens of the
coast, and in the sacred recesses of the mosques of Omar and Hebron it equally abounds. It is
generally gregarious, ten or twenty pairs breeding in the same ruins, and rearing their young
about the end of March. It often builds its nest in the recesses of the caves which are occupied
by the Griffons, and is the only bird which the Eagles appear to permit to live in close proximity
to them. At Amman, too, it builds in the ruins in company with the Jackdaws; and in several
places, as at Lydda and Nazareth, large colonies are mixed indiscriminately with those of the

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following species (Tinnunculus cenchris). The number of nests we came across, without searching
for them, was enormous."

With regard to its occurrence in North-eastern Africa, Captain Shelley considers it to be
" by far the most abundant Hawk in Egypt. On one occasion," he adds, " we saw at least a
hundred in a single group of palm-trees, attracted there, no doubt, by the locusts which were
passing in dense continuous clouds beneath them. These flights of locusts spread this year
(1870) throughout the country, clearing whole districts of every green crop as they passed."

The following notes have been published by Dr. von Heuglin : —

" In the northern portion of this country the Kestrel is sedentary, and breeds in spring
(between March and May) in ruins and rocks. In September and October they increase con-
siderably in numbers through the advent of migrants, which spread over Arabia, Nubia, Abyssinia,
and Eastern Sudan, and return early in the end of the winter. In Africa they feed chiefly on
grasshoppers, which in autumn and winter swarm all over the place ; and then the Kestrels may
be seen singly, or in flocks, often, indeed, in large companies, hovering on the steppes. They also
collect round the steppe-fires, where orthoptera, scared up by the flames, become an easy prey to
birds of prey, Bee-eaters, Rollers, Storks, &c.

" The Kestrel which is sedentary in North-east Africa, is generally brighter-coloured than
the European bird, and has larger and blacker spots on the back, breast, and belly. The female
has the head darker reddish grey, and the band on the tail appears to be broader."

Mr. Blanford, during the recent Abyssinian expedition, found it " common both in the
highlands and lowlands in the winter and spring. The bird abounded on the former as late as
April. None were observed in the Anseba valley in July and August."

The Kestrel likewise occurs in Western Africa having been received from Senegambia, and
more recently sent from Fantee by Dr. Hinde, as recorded by Sharpe in his essays on the Orni-
thology of the Fantee country. The last collection sent by the late Mr. Andersson from Damara-
land contained a single skin of the Common Kestrel ; so that it would appear to be by no means
so southern a migrant as the Lesser Kestrel or Red-footed Falcon, though doubtless a few
individuals join the immense flocks of the latter birds which visit Southern Africa in the
winter.

In the Azores the Kestrel is resident, and, curiously enough, does not vary like the Madeira
bird. Mr. J. G. Keulemans, who resided for some time in the above-mentioned island, has
favoured us with the following note : —

" The Kestrel is very common on all the Cape- Verde Islands, and it may be seen on the
sea-shore as well as near the houses in the interior. I have often seen it on the tops of the
mountains, at a height of more than 5000 feet. It is a resident species, and I often received the
young birds. Its principal food is mice, grasshoppers, and beetles. In some localities, like the
plantations along the rivers of the island of St. Jago, many individuals are seen together, and
they are there generally very tame, while on the mountains of the other islands they seem to be
wild and shy. Though residing in a dry, mountainous, and sandy locality, there is not the
slightest difference in the colours between them and the Kestrel of Europe. The inhabitants of
the different islands call it Zebellinha; but on St. Jago the name is Falconha and Francelho.
The natives of all the islands eat the bird and much relish the flesh of the young."

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In the Azores it is only an occasional visitant. Mr. Godman has kindly lent us the only
specimen he has received from those islands ; and we find it to be identical with the British bird.
Of all the Hawks this is the one with which we are most familiar. What dweller in the
country but knows the Kestrel, and has watched him poised aloft on quivering wing, scanning
with eager eye the ground beneath, until his prey is spied and secured by his downward swoop 1
Were it not for the mistaken ignorance of the farmer and gamekeeper, this pretty Falcon
would be far more common ; and it is small credit to the farmer to allow this useful bird to be
slaughtered by day, and its coadjutor, the Barn Owl, by night, both of them subsisting on the
field-mice and other small animals most injurious to his interests. The Kestrel is one of the
last Falcons to disappear as the country becomes cultivated, and may be seen almost anywhere,
more abundantly perhaps near cultivated ground than on the moors or barren heaths, carefully
quartering the ground in search of prey, now hovering in the air and scrutinizing a particular
spot, now sailing at a great altitude above the ground, and every now and then pouncing down
on its prey, which if it fails to secure, it recommences its search with unwearied assiduity. Its
food consists chiefly of field-mice, large insects, which it seizes and devours on the wing, grass-
hoppers, frogs, young or small birds ; and it rarely, if ever, attacks any thing larger than a Lark.
Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., informs us that a Kestrel was once seen engaged in eating a Hooded
Crow, the largest game we have ever heard of this bird devouring. It does not, so far as we can
ascertain (except on rare occasions), ever prey on young Partridges, though Mr. Stevenson, in his
' Birds of Norfolk,' states : — " That some Kestrels carry off young Partridges as well as other
small birdsduring the nesting-season is too well authenticated as a fact for even their warmest
advocates to gainsay; yet still the amount of good which the species generally effects through-
out the year by destroying large quantities of mice, moles, insects and worms, should entitle it
rather to protection at the hands of the farmer than annihilation for occasional raids upon the
keeper's preserves." On the other hand, Naumann says, " It seldom gets hold of young Par-
tridges, as the watchful mother protects them at the risk of her own life." There is no doubt
strict truth in the statements of both the above-mentioned ornithologists ; but we think that the
capture of young game by the Kestrel is only occasional, and that the bird only does this when
other food is scarce, or, more probably, when hard driven to find food for. its own young ; for it
will be remembered that at the time the Kestrel breeds there must be a less quantity of mice
to be captured, on account of the long grass and corn. It is generally in the stubble-fields
that the Kestrel finds an abundance of food ; and the bird may often be seen in the twilight,
standing out in bold relief against the sky, as it hovers in the fields of sheaved corn, from which
the harvestmen have just retired. The Kestrel is more active in the early morning and at dusk
than in the daytime. During the heat of the day it is not much seen, but keeps to the thick
woods, sometimes soaring above them and wheeling in circles. Occasionally four or five may be
thus observed at once in the large woods.

Ancient ruins near cultivated places, or, in the wilder countries, rocky localities are the
favourite haunts of the Kestrel. In large towns where old churches or cathedrals are found,
there also these Falcons congregate, and breed in large numbers in the belfries and towers ; in
countries where the Lesser Kestrel is found, the two species frequent the same localities. It nests
in holes of ruins and in church-towers, or under the eaves of old buildings, in holes and clefts of

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rocks, and in hollow trees, sometimes also in deserted nests of the Crow or Magpie. In England
it more frequently chooses the nest of another bird ; but Mr. Gurney, in a notice published in the
' Zoologist,' mentions a nest of the Kestrel which was placed in the hollow trunk of a pollard
tree, and Lord Lilford tells us that he has also several times found it nesting thus on his own
estate at Lilford. In Finland and Northern Scandinavia Dresser almost invariably found the
bird appropriating the nest of a Crow or Magpie. These were but slightly repaired, and the
bird appeared to have used but little trouble in preparing the nest for its own progeny. When
in holes of rocks or buildings, the eggs are deposited with scarcely any thing in the way of a nest,
though sometimes a little grass, moss, &c. is collected together under them.

The eggs of this bird, from four to five in number, are generally reddish grey, covered so
closely with bright fox-red markings that the eggs appear to be almost uniform dark red. They
are, however, subject to considerable variation, and we may give the following varieties, from a
series in Dresser's collection, as instances of this tendency to variation : —

a. Ground-colour pure white, with minute reddish dots scattered all over the egg.

b. White, with bright-red markings collected chiefly at one end.

c. The ground-colour of half the egg white, and that of the other half dull chestnut, and
the markings bright chestnut.

d. Ground-colour dull reddish-white with purplish-chestnut markings, collected chiefly at
one end.

In shape they are roundish oval, and in size vary from 1^ by 1^- to l-^-§ by 1-^ inch.

The Kestrel is a great wanderer, and is often found far out at sea. Mr. F. Du Cane Godman
informs us that he has often observed them ; and Mr. J. H. Gurney has also written to us to say
that the bird has occurred in the Seychelles. It is probable that this specimen had been blown
out to sea in the course of its southward migration, and had touched at the above-mentioned
islands as its first resting-place. Some idea of the migrations of the Kestrel in the Central
Palsearctic Region will be gathered from the following note published by Thompson : —

" The first which was seen, on our proceeding in H.M.S. ' Beacon' from Malta to the Morea,
at the end of April 1841, was a single individual, which flew close past the vessel when sixty
miles west of the Morea, and forty-five distant from Zante, the nearest land. We saw the
Kestrel about Navarino at the period just mentioned, and in the month of June met with it at
the cliffs of an islet north-east of Port Naussa, in Paros, where it was believed to have an eyry.
When Dr. J. L. Drummond was, many years ago, in the ' Renown ' (74-gun ship), off Toulon,
some hundreds of male Kestrels, on their way south, alighted, quite exhausted, on the rigging ;
and so many were caught by the sailors, that for some time there was hardly a berth without its
Kestrel. The weather was moderate at the time. My friend kept one of them alive for several
weeks by feeding it on salt meat steeped for some time in fresh water. But none of the birds
lived long, in consequence of no fresh food being obtainable for them."

Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., has very kindly taken the trouble to collect information for us
respecting the food of the present bird.

" An instance is recorded in the ' Zoologist ' of a Kestrel eating a Hooded Crow at Favers-
ham : it was not seen to kill it. A keeper at Northrepps, near Cromer, shot one in the act of
pulling an earthworm out of the ground. The same keeper has satisfactorily ascertained that

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n

they take the young Pheasants from the coops when they have nestlings of their own ; but I do
not believe they are destructive to game at any other time, though I once heard of an authentic
case of one killing a Quail. On the 28th of November, 1843, my father dissected a Kestrel, and
found in it the remains of an earwig. They have been shot in the act of sucking eggs of the
Missel Thrush. Another bird, shot at Hampstead on the 11th of May, 1866, contained the
remains of a rat; but mice are their common food. Mr. Hepburn, writing in Macgillivray's
'British Birds,' makes a calculation that a single Kestrel will destroy 10,395 mice in 210 days;
but I can hardly credit it. Gunn, the Norwich birdstuffer, found frogs in the stomach of one,
and, asking in the ' Zoologist' if any one had met with a parallel instance, elicited the fact that
one had been shot at Reading in the act of grasping a slowworm. In the crop of another, shot
in May in the Isle of Wight, were found several spotted newts. Another, shot not very far from
Darlington, contained seventy-nine caterpillars, twenty-four beetles, a field-mouse, and a leech
two inches and a half in length. Another was killed when devouring a crab ; and in that rare
book, Hunt's ' British Birds,' the Kestrel is represented eating a mole. Several instances are
recorded in which a Kestrel ' caught a Tartar'. The bird, having descended on an object on the
ground, was seen to rise hurriedly, fly right up into the air, and then to drop down lifeless, when
a weasel ran away ; and when the observer picked up the bird he found its neck bitten out. I
am not aware that this singular instance of instinct at fault, which has now occurred several
times, is mentioned in any standard work. Many instances are recorded of Kestrels fighting, and
of their being shot in the act. An old and a young male are stuffed in the act of grappling one
another in the Dover Museum ; and under them is written, ' These two Hawks, in a furious fight,
clutched one another and, falling into the sea, were drowned.' "

On the nidification of the Kestrel, Mr. Gurney adds : —

" In June 1847, my father saw a Kestrel's nest near Norwich in the hollow of a pollard oak,
like an Owl's. The six nestlings and the old birds are now stuffed, in my possession. I have
known two instances of Kestrels laying and hatching in confinement, and have read of a third.
They generally nest in Crows' and Magpies' nests, and will try to dispossess the rightful tenants
while in possession. In Scotland, according to Macgillivray, ' twenty nests might be pointed out
in rocks for one in a tree.' In such places the Peregrine is an enemy who often makes a meal of
them. The names ' Windhover ' and ' Stannel ' (sometimes written ' Stonegall,' ' Stanchel,' and
' Steingall') are of great antiquity. It is probable that they both allude to its habit of remaining
suspended in the air with outspread tail and open mouth."

A curious instance of the breeding of a Kestrel in confinement has been given to us by our
friend Mr. Gatcombe, of Plymouth, who writes as follows : — »

" A Mr. Rogers, who has an aviary, and deals in live birds, has had a pair of Kestrels for
many years, which are confined in a partition of a cage only about four feet long and four feet
high by two feet broad, the female of which lays every year ; and a year or two since she hatched
five young ones, but behaved in a most extraordinary manner with her offspring. The eggs were
laid every alternate day, and the young hatched accordingly; but after nursing the young one
most assiduously for a day, directly another came out of the shell she would kill and eat the first,
and so on to the fourth, when Mr. Rogers, wishing to save one bird at least, took the fifth away
and tried to bring it up by hand, but, to his great vexation, failed. I myself saw the female every

124

12

day pluming the eggs and young, and can therefore vouch for the truth of this fact. The
remarkable part of this statement is the bird's breeding in so small a space."

The Kestrel was formerly tried for Falconry, but was never well adapted for the sport, not
possessing the fire and dash of the nobler Falcons. On this subject Dr. Edward Hamilton has
kindly sent us the following note : —

" I have trained the Kestrel myself to come to the lure, but never could get it to swoop at
birds, although I have starved it almost to death ; but put a mouse before it, and it would imme-
diately take it. The favourite food was raw meat or mice. Birds, when given, were always left
half plucked or half eaten, as if distasteful."

The figures in the Plate, which represent a male and female, are taken from English spe-
cimens in our collection. From these birds also the descriptions are taken.

In the preparation of the above article we have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. Sharpe and Dresser.

a. 6 ■ Cookham, April 22nd, 1870 (J. Ford). b,c. c? , $ . Leadenhall Market (H. E. D.). d. ? . Rye Harbour,
Sussex, Sept. 26th, 1860 (H. E. D.). e. $. Pagham, Sussex, August 1870 (G. E. Shelley), f. Zoulla,
February 1868 (Jesse), g. Zoulla, March 12th, 1868 (Jesse), h. ?. Goon-goona, May 2, 1868 (Jesse),
i. $ . Madeira, autumn of 1862 (A. J. Grant).

E Mus. Lord Lilford.
a. 6 ■ Lilford, May 1866 (Lilford).

E Mus. Salvin and Godman.

a. Park Hatch, Godalming (F. Godman). b. Japan, 1863 (Mus. Lugd.). c. Darjeeling (Eccles). d, e. El
Djene, Tunis, March 1, 1857 (0. Salvin). f. St. Michael's (G. Brown).

E Mus. B. Swinhoe.

a. Peking, August 1868 (R. S.). b, c. 3, ?. Hainan, February 1868 (R. S.). d, e,f. Amoy, October 15,
1866 (R. S.). g, h, i,j, k. Amoy, November 1866 (R. S.). I, m. Amoy, December 1866-67 (R. S.).
n, o,p, q, r, s, t, u. Amoy, January 1867-68 (R. S.). v, w, x. Amoy, February 1867 (R. S.). y. Amoy,
April 28, 1867(2?. S.).

E Mus. H. B. Tristram.

a. Castle Eden, Durham (H. B. T.). b. Algiers, December 1855 (H. B. T.). c, 3. Sidon, December 1, 1863
(H. B. ¥.). d. 6- Mount Carmel, March 26, 1864 (H. B. T.). e. d. Etawah, January 1870 (W. E.
Brooks).

E Mus. Norvicensi.
a. 2- Objimbinque, Damaraland, February 1st, 1865 (C. J. Andersson). b. d. Seychelles (Mus. Norv.).

E Mus. Lord Walden.

a, b, c. England, d, e. Asia Minor (Robson). f. Ortakeuy (Robson). g. Simla, h, i. Umballah (Scott).
j. Nepaul Valley, k. North-eastern India. /. Maunbhoom (Beavan). m,n. Candeish. o,p,q,r. Ceylon
(Chapman), s, t. Tonghoo, Burmah. u. China (R. Bergman), v. Abyssinia (Jesse).

385

TINNUNCULUS CENCHRIS.

125

FALCO CENCHEIS.

(LESSER KESTREL.)

Falco cenchris, Cuv. Regne Anim. i. p. 322 (1829, ex Frisch, 1739).
Falco naumanni, Fleisch. in Fischer, Jahrgang, 1818 (teste Naumann).
Falco tinnunculoides, " Natterer," Temm. Man. d'Orn. i. p. 31 (1820).
Falco ccanthonyx, " Natterer," Naum. Vog. Deutschl. An. p. 525 (1822).
Falco tinnuncularius, Vieill. Orn. Franc, p. 36, pi. 16. fig. 3 (1823).
Cerchneis cenchris, Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 74 (1831).
Tinnunculus cenchris, Gray, Gen. of B. ii. p. 21 (1844).
Tichornis cenchris, Kaup, Classif. Saugeth. unci Vogel, p. 108 (1844).
Pcecilomis cenchris, Kaup, Contr. to Orn. 1850, p. 53.

CrScerelle crecerellette, French ; BothelfalJce, German ; Falco grillajo, Italian ; Primilla, or
Buero, Spanish ; Sokoll Krasnoi, Russian.

Mas pileo toto clare cano, genis albicanti striolatis, loris fulvescentibus : inter scapulio scapularibusque pallide
cinnamomeo-rufis : dorso imo, uropygio et supraeaudalibus canis, illius plumis paullo rufescenti
adumbratis : tectricibus alarum superioribus minimis dorso concoloribus, paucis exterioribus rufo
lavatis, majoribus canis : remigibus nigricanti-brunneis, pogonio interno plerumque albo, primariis
interioribus plus minusve brunneo fasciatis, secundariis brunneis, pennis dorsalibus canis, vix extus
rufo marginatis : cauda tota cana prope apicem album late nigro transfasciata : gula et crisso fulves-
centi-albis : corpore subtus reliquo dilute cinnamomeo, ubique lateraliter maculis ovalibus nigris notato,
pectore superiore et medio lineis nigris tenuibus maculato : rostro indigotico, ad basin flavo, versus apicem
nigricante, cera lsete flava : pedibus lagte flavis, unguibus fere albidis, interdum nigris : iride brunnea.

Fern, cinnamomeo-rufa, pilei plumarum scapis distincte nigricanti-brunneo lineatis : fronte et supercilio
angusto albidis : plumis orbitam circumeuntibus nigris : regione auriculari argentescenti-alba : colli
lateribus fulvescenti-albidis, plumis medialiter late brunneo lineatis : dorso ubique nigricanti-brunneo
transfasciato, et tectricibus alarum ut dorsum coloratis : dorso imo angustius transfasciato, plumis vix
canescentibus : remigibus brunneis, pogonio interno albicante, fulvescenti-albo transfasciato^ secundariis
nigro et rufo transnotatisj dorso concoloribus ; cauda pallide cinnamomea, vitta nigra ante apicem trans-
fasciata : subtus fulvescenti-alba, gula cum abdomine, subcaudalibus cruribusqae immaculatis : pectore
superiore brunneo longitudinaliter striato : pectoris inferioris plumarum scapis brunneo notatis versus
apicem in maculam ovalem dilatatis : subcaudalibus et subalaribas albidis, his brunneo longitudinaliter
variis : rostro, cera et pedibus ut in mari coloratis, unguibus albis.

6 juv. supra dilute cinnamomea, collo postico fulvescente : pileo et dorso superiore anguste nigro lineatis,.
hujus plumarum scapis latius longitudinaliter notatis : genis distincte argentescenti-albis : dorso tota
imo cano : tectricibus alarum dorso concoloribus, at quibusdam nigro transfasciatis : remigibus nigri-
canti-brunneis, anguste rufo marginatis, secundariis rufis, nigro irregulariter transfasciatis et marmo-
ratis : cauda pallide fulvescenti-rufa nigro transfasciata, pennis duabus mediis canis, reliquis basin
versus canescentibus, omnibus ante apicem fulvum late nigro transvittatis : subtus pallide cinnamomeo-

126

2

rufa, pectore superiore sparsiin brunneo striato : pectore inferiore et corpore laterali maculis ovalibus
notato, vix fasciato : gula et abdomine imo immaeulatis, fulvescentibus : subalaribus albis brunneo
maculatis.

Adult Male. Entire head, back, and sides of neck clear blue-grey, the lores fulvescent, and the cheeks
streaked with white ; upper part of the back and scapulars rich cinnamon ; lower part of the back,
rump, and upper tail-coverts grey; wing-coverts cinnamon like the back, a few of the outermost
greater coverts tinged with grey, and some of them altogether grey; quills blackish brown, with a
very narrow edging of rufous, the secondaries brown, the dorsal ones grey, very narrowly edged with
rufous ; tail blue-grey, with a broad black band across it just before the tip, which is white ; throat
fulvous white; breast pale cinnamon-red, with very tiny brown shaft-markings on the upper part of
the breast, which change into oval spots on the lower breast and flanks ; lower part of the belly paler,
shading into yellowish white on the vent and under tail- coverts ; thighs pale rufous, unspotted ; under
wing-coverts white, marked with oval black spots ; bill lightish blue, yellow at base and blackish at tip ;
cere and orbital region beautiful yellow ; legs beautiful yellow, occasionally with the slightest reddish
tinge; nails generally white, sometimes blackish ; iris dark brown. Total length 13 inches, culm. T75
wing 9'2, tail 6*4, tarsus 1.

Adult Female. Tawny red, the crown longitudinally marked with narrow black shaft-stripes, becoming
broader on the back of the neck; lores and an indistinct eyebrow whitish; cheeks silvery white;
feathers round the eye black ; interscapulary region and scapulars barred transversely, as also on the
wing-coverts, which, however, are rather paler red; lower part of the back, rump, and upper tail-
coverts rather more narrowly barred, and somewhat tinged with grey ; quills brown, dirty white on the
inner web, which is irregularly notched and barred ; the secondaries rufous, barred with brown like the
back ; tail pale fawn, irregularly banded with brown, the last bar before the tip of the tail black ;
throat, abdomen, and thighs fulvous, unspotted ; breast yellowish fawn, the shafts of the feathers on
the upper part distinctly marked with longitudinal lines of brown, the lower part of the breast thickly
spotted, the flanks more largely spotted, and the shafts indicated by a broad black line, widening out
towards the apex of the feather; bill, feet, nails, and his as in the male. Total length 12 inches,
culm. 0"7, wing 8'4, tail 5 - 8, tarsus 1.

Young Male. Above pale cinnamon, inclining to fulvous on the back of the neck ; the head marked with
narrow longitudinal black shaft-stripes ; lores and an indistinct eyebrow yellowish white ; cheeks dirty
white; feathers round the eye greyish black; back and scapulars fawn, with longitudinal shaft-stripes
rather plainly marked ; lower part of the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts blue-grey ; wing-coverts
yellowish fawn, paler than the back, showing the remains of the female plumage in the shape of
irregular bars ; quills blackish brown, dirty white on the under web, irregularly notched with white,
tinged with fulvous, the outer ones irregularly mottled with fawn, the inner ones barred with fawn and
black like the wing-coverts ; tail pale yellowish fawn, barred with brown, the bars gradually disappearing
towards the base of the tail, where it is suffused with grey, the two middle feathers entirely grey, the
secondaries for the most part blackish, a broad black bar traversing the tail near the tip ; throat, abdo-
men, thighs, and under tail-coverts yellowish fawn ; the breast pale fawn ; the upper part of the breast
longitudinally striped with brown along the shaft, lower part of the breast thickly covered with spots,
which almost take the form of bars on the flanks.

The Lesser Kestrel is spread generally over Southern Europe, migrating in winter into Africa.
It is only a rare and occasional visitant in Northern Europe. Its eastern range has been given as
India and China, but recently Mr. Swinhoe has shown that the species met with in these

127

countries is different from the Lesser Kestrel of Europe, and he has named the Chinese bird
Falco pekinensis. There can be little doubt that in this conclusion he is perfectly right. We
have compared Mr. Swinhoe's types, as well as two Indian specimens in Lord Walden's collection,
with others in our collection from Europe, and find the two species distinct. They are very
similar to F. cenchris, but everywhere darker in colour, the back more vinous in tint, and very
dark vinous red, almost chestnut, on the under surface, which is unspotted. The whole of the
wing-coverts also are blue-grey, only a few of them being slightly tinged with rufous. The
measurements of an Indian skin are as follows: — Total length 12 inches, culm. - 75, wing 9*1,
tail 6 - 2, tarsus 1.

The present species has been said to have occurred twice in England, once near York and
once near Cambridge. The latter occurrence has been disproved, and we are very sceptical as to
the other supposed instance. Degland and Gerbe say that in France it has been seen in several
parts, particularly in Languedoc, Provence, and the Pyrenees. M. Philippe, of Bagneres-de-
Bigorre, states that " it breeds in some old ruins about twenty-six or twenty-seven kilometres
from this town."

Naumann, who states that but little was known about this bird in his time, says that it is
one of the rarest stragglers to Northern Germany, and only knew of two occurrences in his part
of the country (Anhalt). These two examples are cited by Dr. Borggreve in his recent work as
the only instances of the occurrence of the bird in North Germany ; so that it has not been met
with since Naumann wrote. Gatke has, however, obtained it in Heligoland. In Styria
Seidensacher says : —

" It is not an uncommon bird here, where it breeds on the ruins of the old castle, in hollow
oaks, church-towers, &c. It is a migrant, arriving at Cilli early in April (exceptionally) or late
in March. Towards the end of July or in August it leaves us, and only a single bird or so
remain until September. Besides grasshoppers, mice, &c, lizards are a favourite prey of this
bird.

" In favourable seasons some females begin to lay early in May (in 1862 one egg was found
on 4th May), and generally the full complement of from four to five is found shortly after the
middle of that month. Near the nesting-places the old birds fly round nearly all day, uttering a
cry like psche, psch, psche, wsche, when the females have not commenced incubation, and at this
time they are not at all shy."

Malherbe says it is "accidental during migration in Dalmatia, Italy, and Sicily;" and
regarding its occurrence in Savoy, Bailly writes : —

" Hitherto it has been so rare in Savoy that it cannot be considered a regular migrant,
but merely an accidental visitor. It has only been observed in the southern valleys, on the
plains of Saint-Jean-la-Porte, Sainte-Helene-du-Lac, on the banks of the Isere, near Sainte-Pierre
dAlbigny, and, lastly, at Chambery and the marshy country in that neighbourhood."

Mr. H. Saunders, in his paper on the Birds of Southern Spain, says : —

"The majority arrive in March and April; but some remain in Andalucia all the winter.
The birds swarm about old buildings ; and hundreds may be seen any summer's evening in Seville
hovering round the statue of Faith which crowns the Giralda. It is a somewhat late breeder ;
for on the 16th of May I had difficulty in obtaining a complete clutch of eggs."

28

For the following note we are indebted to the kindness of Major Irby, who has given us a
complete series of observations on the Birds of Andalucia : —

" Extremely numerous, arriving in February and leaving in October. A few pair remain at
Gibraltar throughout the year. I have never seen this bird nesting in trees, but always in holes
of rocks and buildings, or, as in the Crimea, in river-banks. I have taken the nest in a hole in a
wall four feet from the ground. It is observed on the Rock of Gibraltar."

The following interesting account of the species has been published by Lord Lilford in his
paper on the Ornithology of Spain : —

" The two species of Kestrel, F. tinnunculus and F. tinnunculoides, are, I think, in April
and May, the commonest birds in Andalucia, with perhaps the exception of the Bee-eater (Merops
ajriaster). Every church-steeple, belfry, and tower, every town and village, every ruin swarms
with them ; I believe I am not at all beyond the mark in saying that I have seen three or four
hundred on wing at the same moment on more than one occasion, particularly at Castro del Bio
in April 1864. I think the Little Kestrel is somewhat the most abundant of the two species.
The cry of these pretty birds is as certain to strike the ear in the towns of Andalucia as the
twang of the guitar and click of the castanets. Both species of Kestrel continue on wing long
after dark. In the delicious summer nights of Southern Spain, when all the louder sounds of
human life are hushed, and nothing breaks the silence but the monotonous note of the little
Scops Owl, and the 'wet my lips' of innumerable Quails, I have occasionally been roused from a
reverie by the cry of the Kestrels over my head, seemingly passing and repassing, and carrying
on their usual evolutions in spite of the darkness. Whilst on this subject, may I ask if any of
my readers have ever remarked the extraordinary cries of birds during the night % It has hap-
pened to me on several occasions after dark, in different parts of Europe, to hear very large
flights of birds, with whose notes (in the majority of instances) I was totally unacquainted, pass
over at no great distance. Once, in one of the quadrangles of Christ-Church, Oxford, I listened
for at least ten minutes to the continuous cry of a flock of birds — which cry I can only liken, and
that very slightly, to the screech of the Night-Heron (Nycticorax griseus). Again, on the
Esplanade at Corfu, in the summer of 1858, my companion and I were suddenly startled from
the somewhat drowsy contemplation of our cigarettes by an uproar as if all the feathered
inhabitants of the great Acherusian marsh had met in conflict over our heads ; this took place in
July, about 1 a.m., when we were lengthening our days according to Tom Moore's well-known
precept. It would be quite impossible to convey any thing approaching to a just idea of the
Babel of sounds, many of which neither of us had ever before heard ; and I have no conception
what birds can have produced the greater part of them ; but I recognized the wail of the Curlew,
the cry of more than one species of Tern, and the laugh of some Larus. In Southern Spain the
Lesser Kestrel occasionally remains through the winter, but the greater number leave the country
about October and reappear in April. The Spaniards call the Common Kestrel Cernicalo, and
the Lesser Primilla or Buero : this latter name is sometimes applied to the Hobby also. The
Merlin (Falco cesalon), in Spanish Esmerejon, is common in winter, and well known throughout
Spain."

In Sardinia the Lesser Kestrel is common, and breeds. Mr. C. A. Wright says that in Malta
the inhabitants call the adult male Spagnolott, and the female and young birds Seker. " It is,"

129

he writes, " not uncommon in April and May, and passes sometimes in flocks of nearly a hundred,
but is not so often seen as F. tinnunculus. I have also obtained it in autumn."

Loche found it "less common in Algiers than the Kestrel, and, like this bird, feeding on
small mammals, birds, insects, or, when pressed by hunger, small reptiles. He says he never found
them in large flocks, but singly or in pairs. It nests there in the neighbourhood of Boghar."

Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake, writing on the Birds of Tangiers and Eastern Morocco, says it
"passes over during the March migration, but remains all the year at Laraiche. I obtained
several specimens thence in February ; and it also breeds there."

Lord Lilford states that it " visits Corfu and the mainland in spring. I killed a specimen
near Prevesa on the 20th March, 1857, and bought a good pair in the Corfu market in the
month of April of the following year. This and the following species are seen in small flocks of
from five to ten or twelve, and appear to feed exclusively on insects."

Von der Muhle writes as follows : —

" They are as common in Greece, or at least in the Morea, as the Common Kestrel ; they
arrive in April, and swarm in the swampy meadows, and from their habit of hovering they form
a curious sight. Like the Common Kestrel they hover over their prey, drop on it, catch it, and
rising again into the air devour it, seldom acting otherwise. By careful observation they may be
seen biting off the feet and wings of the grasshoppers and letting them drop. Those we examined
had in their stomachs grasshoppers, lizards, and moles, but never frogs."

Dr. Lindermayer also says : —

" The commonest Hawk after the Common Kestrel. In the spring it arrives with its con-
geners on the plains and islands of Greece, and spreads itself over the whole country, breeding
not only in ruins but in inhabited houses. It feeds on beetles, grasshoppers, and sometimes on
small lizards. In the stomachs of those I have shot immediately after their arrival in Greece, I
invariably found remains of North- African beetles. It leaves us very early, so that, in Attica at
least, none are seen after the end of August."

Dr. Finsch records it from Bulgaria, and the following note has been published by Messrs.
Elwes and Buckley in their list of the Birds of Turkey : —

" We never observed this species but once, when snowed up in a Bulgarian village near
Salonica on March 6th. Early in the morning a Lesser Kestrel, which had probably just
arrived, flew against the house and was killed. We do not think it is found commonly, except
in the most southern part of the country."

Kriiper, writing from south-eastern Europe, observes : —

" One of the commonest Hawks. I did not note its first arrival, but put it down as late in
March. In many Turkish villages (as, for instance, in Turbali) the place swarms with these
Hawks. Here it is useful as an exterminator of grasshoppers, and is therefore valued by the
Turks. Its eggs are placed, without any nest, under the eaves on the clay walls of houses and
stables. I also found a nest in a hole in a mulberry-tree. The eggs are four to five, seldom six,
in number. Near Smyrna the breeding-season commences early in May ; on the 24th I found
the first young."

Mr. Robson writes to us as follows : —

" This species is not uncommon in Asia Minor and Turkey in Europe at the time of

T

30

migration. They arrive and pass in small flocks in the early part of April, when many of them
are shot by sportsmen, and examples are captured by sailors on board vessels cruising in the
Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora. Many of them are also shot, during the autumn migration,
in level marshy districts, which they resort to for their food, which consists of beetles, grass-
hoppers, and small lizards, &c. They breed in the rocky and mountainous district of Kara Hisar,
near Trebizond, and are never seen in the neighbourhood of the Bosphorus in summer. Young
birds are sometimes taken in the autumn by bird-catchers on limed twigs."

Mr. Strickland's remarks on this bird are as follows : —

" Very abundant in Asia Minor during the spring. It frequents the Turkish villages, and
builds in the roofs of the houses. Its mode of hovering is similar to that of the Common Kestrel,
but it is more gregarious in its habits than that bird." In the Strickland collection there is a
specimen killed by the owner himself at Azani, in Mysia.

Professor von Nordmann says : —

" I have seen several in New Russia (in the summer of 1838), in the Crimea, and at Cherson.
My brother has killed it near Wosnessensk, and I have also seen it in the Province of Ghouriel.
In the spring of 1835 I saw at Odessa several of these birds, flying here and there, and resting
on the tops of the high houses in the town in company with Common Kestrels. It leaves us
early in September, and does not return until the spring, a few days after the arrival of the Red-
legged Falcon."

Herr H. Goebel says it is " rare in the Government of Kiew." Eversmann states that on his
journey from Orenburg to Bokhara he found it common on the northern steppes.

The Rev. H. B. Tristram, in his paper on the Ornithology of Palestine, observes : —

" This species returns with the Swallows in March, and at once consorts with its congener,
the Common Kestrel. It may be seen everywhere, in the open glades, or among the lanes
between the gardens in the suburbs of the villages pursuing insects, and especially catching
cockchafers towards evening. It breeds, so far as we have observed, invariably in communities,
usually in narrow fissures of the rocks or in the crevices of ruins, not generally in very inaccessible
situations, but always in so narrow a cleft, and at such a depth in, that the eggs are hard to
extract. I never found a colony without many of the Common Kestrel breeding in the same
place. The largest rookeries of this bird we met with were in the towns of Lyddah and Ramleh,
and in the top of an old quarried cave (perfectly protected by prickly fern) in the town of
Nazareth. Although the two species are so closely allied, there can be no difficulty in dis-
criminating the eggs ; and we found that the Arab boys knew the difference between the two
species at once, calling one the black-nailed and the other the white-nailed ' bashik.' "

Again he writes : —

" It is gregarious about the ruins in the plain-districts. About fifteen or twenty pairs were
building their nests in and about the beautiful tower of Ramleh (Arimathea) in company with a
still larger number of the Common Kestrel, and flew screaming round me as I climbed the still
perfect staircase of the tower. It was interesting to watch them in the evening sweeping bike
Swallows over the field, or threading their way up and down the lanes formed with prickly pear,
in pursuit of the Scarabcei on which they were feeding, seizing them with their claws on the
wing, and, as they sailed by me, picking off with their beaks the elytra of their prey, and dropping

r

3

them almost at my feet. Though I have never found the Lesser Kestrel either in Asia or Africa,
except in company with the common species, yet it seems to be without the power of adaptation
possessed by its congener, confining itself to old towers and rocks, and living always in com-
munities more or less numerous. I obtained some beautiful specimens at Ramleh. There is a
still larger colony about the old ruined English church of Lyddah, over the reputed tomb of
' St. George of merrie England.' "

Mr. E. C. Taylor remarks, "with the exception of one male, killed about the end of March,
I never saw this species in Egypt ; but I believe it arrives in great numbers later in the spring,
and breeds in the country."

Capt. G. E. Shelley also says, " I only shot this bird once ; this was towards the end of
March, near Benisooef."

It is evident, however, that both the above observers were not in Egypt at the time that the
present species returns, as will be seen by the following observations.

Dr. von Heuglin writes : —

" Visits, as a migrant, in autumn and spring, Egypt, Arabia, Nubia, Kordofan, and Abys-
sinia, and is often found in large flocks in the acacia- and date-woods and on the steppes. In
Egypt it remains from the middle of March to early in May, and passes again in September and
October. A few pair are said to breed in the fortifications of Alexandria. According to Vier-
thaler, a perfect army of these Hawks were seen on the Blue Nile, above a low wood, which was
full of locusts. We also saw a similar flock in April at Memphis, and in October at Keren, in
the Bogos country. They moult, like the Common Kestrel, in November and December."

Mr. S. Stafford Allen also observes : —

" The Kestrel (which, by the way, runs much smaller in size than British or Maltese speci-
mens), as Dr. Adams observes, is excessively abundant in Egypt, and breeds in April, choosing
for that purpose palm-trees, sycamores, or old ruins, particularly the half-ruined 'koubbehs' or
mosque-tombs of Arab saints, which are of frequent occurrence.

" Its near relation, the Lesser Kestrel, is not seen in winter, but comes northward in March
and April in flocks, often associated with Erythropus vespertinus (Linn.), with which it seems to
have considerable affinity. I have observed in the former species (T. cenchris) that the sexes
appear to keep separate in their peregrinations, the females decidedly preponderating in numbers.
The reverse is the case with the elegant little Merlin, which Dr. Adams seems not to have met
with. Stragglers are seen occasionally during the winter months, but in March and April it is
rather a common bird. The birds shot in Egypt are almost invariably males, as I have only
seen two females out of dozens shot by myself and others."

Dr. A. Leith Adams, in speaking of Cerchieis tinnunculus, says, " There is little doubt,
however, that other closely allied species, such as T. cenchris, may have frequently been mistaken
for, or perhaps considered identical with, the sacred bird, and accordingly worshipped and
embalmed."

The Lesser Kestrel visits Southern Africa in winter. Mr. J. H. Gurney writes to us as
follows: — "According to Andersson's notes Tinnunculus cenchris appears in Damaraland every
rainy season, in company with Erythropus vespertinus and Milvus migrans, but in much smaller

y2

DO

8

numbers. A few individuals sometimes extend their migrations to the colony of the Cape of
Good Hope."

Mr. Layard has kindly sent us the following note : —

" Falco cenchris appears to be getting more and more common in South Africa every year.
About the years 1859 and 1860 it first made its appearance in the colony, following the flights 'of
locusts. Mr. Cairncross, of Swellendam, procured a pair in 1860, and sent them to me as a
novelty. I am sure that, had they been in that neighbourhood before, my friend, who is a keen
collector, would have noticed them. Mr. Sclater, to whom I forwarded them, wrote that they
were the first he had seen from south of the equator.

" In 1865 I saw a few perching on the telegraph poles and wires in the open country
between Swellendam and Caledon, from whence they swooped down on locusts, centipedes, and
such like bisects, as I ascertained from the contents of their stomachs.

" On the 7th January, 1870, Mr. Cairncross wrote: — ' I counted to-day thirty-four examples
of F. cenchris drifting along over the street (at Swellendam), about 200 feet over head, going to the
westward. Locusts plentiful this year.' I fancy they are now permanently established as residents
in the colony.

" Dr. Exton obtained it plentifully in the country north of Sechele's; ' they were harrying a
flight of locusts, taking them on the wing, striking the insects with the foot, and then carrying
them to their bills.'

" From all I can gather from conversations with hunters and others, they seem abundant to
the north-eastward, in the locality described by Dr. Exton, and further towards the sea-coast on
the western side. It is not easy for the uneducated eye to distinguish between the Kestrel and
F. rupicolus, especially on the wing ; but all agree that there are two kinds of ' Wind-hovers,' a
large and a small one, so I conclude the small bird to be F. cenchris."

In habits the Lesser Kestrel scarcely differs from the Common Kestrel, being, however,
more gregarious. To the excellent accounts above given we can add nothing, and shall conclude
by transcribmg Dr. Kriiper's notes made in South-eastern Europe. In his notes on the Orni-
thology of Greece he says : —

" In Greece it is called Kipicivkoi and also KipK^veov. It is not found in all parts of the
country, particularly those parts at a great altitude, and is scarcely known in the mountain-
villages. It inhabits the plains near water. Here it is found numerously, as these places are
well supplied with insects, and particularly grasshoppers, which constitute its chief food.
Hovering in the air it perceives these in the grass, pounces on them, and soon rises again to
continue its search. It is a pretty sight to watch the Lesser Kestrel, particularly when they are
hunting in company ; and they are then an easy prey to the sportsman. It is easily recognizable
from afar by its continued loud cry, which sounds like the Greek word vevai (jSejSa/wc, ' yes,
certainly'). I first heard the cry of the Lesser Kestrel on the 12th April, 1858, when I landed
at Missolonghi, and was enjoying the hospitality of Dr. Nieder. As this bird nested in the
neighbouring roofs, I often heard the cry without knowing what it was, until my host told me
that it was uttered by the Lesser Kestrel. Throughout the summer I had opportunities of
observing this pretty bird at its nest. I reckon that it arrives late in March, for I observed the
first in 1860 on the 12th of March, and in 1859 on the 16th of March. The eggs are deposited

13;]

9

late in April or early in May. Thus, in 1858, I found on the 29th of April a full clutch, and in
some nests only one egg; and in 1859 I found complete clutches in all nests on the 7th of May.
This year (1860) I found on the 9th of May all nests empty, as in April and May the weather
was unusually bad. The general number of eggs is four, sometimes five. I never found a clutch
of six, as did Mr. Seidensacher, at Krain.

" The Lesser Kestrel makes no nest, but deposits its eggs, often without any thing placed
under them, in the hollow of a wall or roof; and in the hole are found remains of grasshoppers
and other insects. In many houses there are several nests, but most are found in old ruins.
The entrance to the nest is easy to find, being white with the excrement of the bird. This species
is so fond of its progeny that it will not leave its nest, and can be taken on it with the hand."

The eggs of the Lesser Kestrel are subject to quite as much, if not more, variation than
those of the Common Kestrel. We have before us a large series from Dresser's collection, taken
chiefly in Styria, the general run of which are like the rusty-coloured eggs of the Common
Kestrel in colour ; but amongst them are the following varieties, viz. : — «, dirty white with a very
few faint red spots ; b, greyish white, covered at the smaller end with sparse reddish spots, and
at the larger end thickly blotched with dark red ; c, nearly pure white, half the egg being very
closely blotched with deep reddish brown, showing scarcely any of the ground-colour, and but
few reddish spots scattered over the other end ; d, light reddish clay-coloured, marked here and
there with a few small dark red spots ; e, light buff, spotted all over with scattered blackish-
brown spots ; f, ground-colour light buff, smudged closely all over with dull reddish brown. In
size the eggs vary from 1^-" by 1^" to l^j" by 1-g-", and in form are sometimes roundish, some-
times ovate, sometimes pure oval.

Before dismissing the subject we wish to draw attention to the following statement published
by Mr. Howard Saunders in a recent number of 'The Ibis.' In writing about F. tinnunculus,
he observes: —

" I fancy that there is either an intermediate race, or that this species and F. cenchris
interbreed, as I took a white-clawed bird off hard-set eggs in the Cathedral of Seville on
May 16th, when the latter had scarcely begun to lay its very distinct eggs ; in length of wing
this female is identical with specimens from other localities." Mr. Saunders has kindly lent us
this specimen, and, we must confess, it puzzles us greatly. From its white claw and general
appearance we should be inclined to refer it without hesitation to the Lesser Kestrel ; and we
believe it to belong really to this species, the only facts militating against this idea being the large
size of the eggs (which Mr. Saunders calls " of the boldest type of the Common Kestrel, one
being exceptionally large, like a small Peregrine's") and the slightly larger size and longer wing.

We would remark that the white claw is not always a good character whereby to distinguish
this species ; for Dresser shot a fine male at Cilli, in Styria, which had the claws " light blue," as
noted at the time of death. Still most examples have white claws ; and Dr. Tristram tells us
that the Arabs distinguish between the two species by means of the claws.

The synonymy of this species is in an unsatisfactory condition, and it is doubtful whether
the real name by which the bird should be known is not Falco naumanni ; but we have not been
able to discover the periodical in which this name is stated to have been published, nor does any
one else appear to have been more fortunate. Then, again, Natterer's names are apparently only

134

10

MS. appellations forwarded to Temminck and Naumann in private communications. Degland
and Gerbe refer to Falco tinnuncularius of Vieillot as published in 1817 (Nouv. Diet. xi. p. 93),
but no Latin name is here given. It is evident, therefore, that Temminck's name of F. tinnun-
culoides will stand, should not an older one be found in the former works of Naumann or in the
periodical above referred to, as the title proposed by Frisch is pre-Linnean.

Figures of the Lesser Kestrel will be found in the following works : — Naumann' s ' Vogel
Deutschlands,' Taf. 29; Gould's 'Birds of Europe,' pi. 27; Werner's 'Atlas' to Temminck's
' Manuel d'Ornithologie ' ; St.-Hilaire, ' Exp. Scientifique de Moree,' pis. 2 & 3 ; Bree's ' Birds
of Europe ' ; Fritzsch's ' Vogel Europas,' &c. : but of all the above authors, Naumann and Isidore
Geoffroy St.-Hilaire have alone given an illustration of the female.

The descriptions of the birds in the present paper have been made from the following
examples: — That of the adult male is taken from a beautiful skin marked as fully adult by
Dr. Kriiper, and sent by that well-known naturalist from Attica, that of the female being from
an adult bird taken in Seville Cathedral by Mr. Howard Saunders himself. The young male
described was sent to us by Signor Olcesse, of Tangiers. In the Plate we have figured the
above-mentioned adult and young males, as the female is rather like that of the Common
Kestrel, and we thought it would be interesting to show a specimen in the act of gaming his
adult dress, as it illustrates the way in which this plumage is gradually assumed. It is a
noticeable fact that very old females of both the Common and Lesser Kestrels do assume more
or less of a blue shade on the upper tail-coverts ; and it is here that the first blue shade appears
in the young male, indicative that he is about to assume his more beautiful adult dress. Of the
three species of Kestrel mentioned by us in the present work it would seem as if F. tinnunculus
was the oldest species on the face of the earth, and F. pekinensis the most recent ; the latter,
indeed, has doubtless not long been evolved from F. cenchris, the change of plumage having been
induced by its comparative isolation, — that is to say, that the journey from North China to India
being sufficient to satisfy the migratory instincts of the progenitors of F. pekinensis, they did not
follow the bulk of migrating birds to Africa, but stayed in India, and thus became by degrees
modified into a distinct species.

If the ancient Kestrels, as was most probable, were similar in sex like other Hawks, we
should have both male and female rufous in colour, spotted below, barred above. If we dare
judge from the fact that the female of the bird of the present day has a shade of blue on the
lower back when very old, and that the young male, similar to the female in his juvenile
plumage, first shows a trace of approaching adolescence by the appearance of blue on the same
part, we might easily conceive that the first tendency to sexual variation commenced thus, and
that the advantage gained by the lucky individuals being transmitted to their progeny, a gradual
tendency to don a grey plumage would be inherited; and this being of advantage in sexual
selection, was probably the case. This blue coloration extended to the tail itself (this being in
the young bird at the present day the next part to assume the blue tint) would still further
conduce to the benefit of the male ; while the blue on the head, a still further supplement to his
beauty, would have been the latest addition to his dress (as it is in the young bird still the last to
be assumed). The Lesser Kestrel (F. cenchris) has still further improved upon the garb of his
more ancient ally by assuming a richer coloration and a more slender form, no spots being

135

n

apparent on the back ; while F. pekinensis is a still more beautiful bird, being coloured in the
same style as F. cenchris, but not having the spotted breast of the latter, and being altogether
more richly coloured. A spotted plumage having been the characteristic of the ancient pro-
genitors, the more recent form may be noted for the total absence of spots in the adult male
at least.

In the preparation of the above article we have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. Sharpe and Dresser,
a. cj ad. Attica (Dr. Kriiper) . b,c,d. Tangiers (Olcesse). e. 3. Cilli, Styria, April 17th, 1866 (H. E. Dresser).

E Mus. Howard Saunders.
a, b. 2 • Seville Cathedral, May 16th, 1868 (H. S.).

E Mus. Lord Lilford.
a, b, c. Aranjuez (L.). d. Seville (L.) .

E Mus. H. B. Tristram,
a, b. Arimathea (H. B. T.). c. d. Palestine (H. B. T.).

E Mus. B. Swinhoe.
a, b. (Falco pekinensis.) Peking, August and September 1868.

E Mus. Lord Walden.
a, b. (F. pekinensis.) India (Sturt).

136

.37

Genus PANDION.

Accipiter apud Biisson, Orn. i. p. 362 (1760).
Aquila apud Brisson, torn. < it. p. 440 (1760).
Falco apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat, i. p. 129 (1766).
Pandion, Savigny, Syst. Ois. de l'Egypte, &c. p. 36 (1810).
Triorches apud Leach, Syst. Cat. B. & M. Brit. Mus. p. 10 (1816).
Balbusardus apud Fleming, Brit. Anim. p. 51 (1828).

This genus contains only a single species, Pandion haliaetus, which inhabits the Palsearctic,
Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian, and Nearctic Regions, ranging also into the northern portions
of the Neotropical Region. Mr. Sharpe, indeed, separates the Australian bird as a race, or
subspecies, under the name of Pandion leucocephalus (Gould), on account of its smaller size ;
but, as stated in the following article, it appears to me that the difference in size does not
constitute a sufficiently good character by which it can be separated, as examples from the
same locality differ so greatly in size as to prove that the difference is, as a rule, individual and
not climatic.

Full particulars of the habits and nidification of the Osprey are given in the following
article?

Pandion haliaetus, the type of the genus, has the bill short, rounded, upper mandible with
the edges festooned, the tip elongated, decurved, acute ; nostrils oblong, oblique ; wings long,
pointed, the first quill longer than the fifth, the third longest ; tail rather long, slightly rounded ;
legs strong, tarsi short, covered with reticulated scales ; toes long, slender, curved, acute, free, the
outer one reversible ; plumage compact, the feathers wanting the accessory plumule.

12 J

138

386

* i^ii

J.GKeulemajis ith .

M&N Hanhart imp.

OS PREY.

PANDION HALIAETUS.

387

- ^-'^ulemans teJi.

MJvN.Hanliart. imp

OSPREY.

YOUNG AND NESTLING.

139

PANDION HALIAETUS.

(OSPREY.)

The Fishing-Hawk, Catesby, Nat. Hist. Carol, i. pi. 2 (1731).

Accipiter falco piscator carolinensis, Briss. Orn. i. p. 362 (1760).

Aquila haliwetus seu Aquila marina, Briss. torn. cit. p. 440 (1760).

Falco haliaetus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 129 (1766).

Le Balbuzard, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. i. p. 103, pi. 11 (1770).

Falco arundinaceus, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 263 (1788).

Falco carolinensis, Gmel. ut supra (1788).

Falco cayennensis, Gmel. ut supra (1788).

Aquila piscatrix, Vieill. Ois. Am. Sept. i. p. 29, pi. 4 (1807).

Pandion fluvialis, Savigny, Syst. Ois. de l'Egypte, p. 36 (1810).

Aquila haliaetus (L.), Wolf, Taschenb. d. deutschen Vogelk. i. p. 23 (1810).

Accipiter haliaetus (L.), Pall. Zoogr. Bosso-As. i. p. 355 (1811).

Triorches fluvialis (Sav.), Leach, Syst. Cat. M. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 10 (1816).

Aquila balbusardus, Dumont, Diet. Sci. Nat. i. p. 351 (1816).

Pandion americanus, Vieill. & Aud. Gal. Ois. p. 33, pi. 11 (1825).

Balbusardus haliaetus (L.), Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 51 (1828).

Pandion haliaetus (L.), Less. Man. d'Orn. i. p. 86 (1828).

Pandion alticeps, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 33 (1831).

Pandion planiceps, C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 33 (1831).

Pandion carolinensis, Aud. B. N. Am. pi. 81 (1831).

Pandion leucocephalus, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 138.

Pandion indicus, Hodgs. in Gray's Zool. Misc. p. 81 (1844).

Pandion ichthyaetus, Kaup, Classif. Saugeth. u. Vog. p. 122 (1844, nee Horsf.).

Pandion gouldi, Kaup, Isis, 1847, p. 270.

Pandion albigularis, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 12 (1855).

Pandion minor, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Pandion fasciatus, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Pandion clypeatus, L. Brehm, Allg. deutsch. naturh. Zeit. ii. p. 64 (1856).

Pandion haliaetus, var. carolinensis, Ridg. Proc. A. N. Sc. 1870, p. 143.

Iolair uisg, Gaelic ; Balbusard, French ; Aguia pesqueira, Portuguese ; Aguila pescador,

Spanish ; Falco pescatore, Italian ; Arpa, Maltese ; Bou-haut, Moorish ; Flussadler,

Fischaar, Fischhabicht, German ; Visch-Arend, Dutch ; Flodbm, Fiskebrn, Danish ; Fiskejo,

Fiskebrn, Norwegian ; Fiskljuse, Swedish ; Kalasddski, Finnish ; Skopd, Russian ; Tschif-

tscha, Lapp.

Figurce notabiles.

DAubenton, PI. Enl. 414, 416 ; Werner, Atlas, Bapaces, pi. 21 ; Kjaerb. Orn. Dan. taf. 2 ;

B

140

2

Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 9. fig. 1 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 16 ; Sundevall, Svensk.
Fogl. pi. 29. fig. 1 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 12 ; id. B. of G. Brit. i. pi. 5 ; Schlegel, Vog.
Nederl. pi. 30; Audub. B. of Am. pi. 81; Susemihl, Vog. Eur. taf. 24.

c? ad. capite albo, pileo conspicue nigro-fusco striate, capitis lateribus nigro-fusco notatis, hypochondriis et
fascia ab oculo ad latera colli utrinque fuscis : nucha? pluniis elongatis, lanceolatis, vix ochraceo
lavatis, nonmillis nigro-fusco apicatis : collo postico et corpore supra saturate fuscis, dorso vix nitente :
remigibus nigro-fuscis, iu pogonio interno ad basin albidis, fusco transversim fasciatis : cauda nigro-
fusca, rectricibus centralibus immaculatis, reliquis in pogonio interno albidis nigro-fusco fasciatis :
corpore subtus albo, pectore vix pallide brunneo et ochraceo notato : rostro nigricanti-corneo : iride
flava, cera cserulea, pedibus pallide plumbeis.

5 ad. mari similis sed major, capite et pectore magis fusco notatis'.

Juv. capite et nucha, magis nigro-fusco notatis : plumis in corpore supra et alis fere omnibus albido marginatis
seu apicatis, cauda magis fasciata et valde albo apicata : corpore subtus albo, pectore pallide brunneo
vix rufescente isabellino lavato plumis albo notatis et marginatis.

Adult Male (Astrachan, April) . Head white, on the crown broadly striped with blackish brown, which
colour forms almost a patch before and above the eye; ear-coverts and a stripe to the hind neck
blackish brown; feathers on the hind crown and nape elongated, lanceolate, washed with yellowish,
and some terminated with blackish brown ; hind neck, and, to some extent, the sides of the neck, back,
and upper parts generally dark brown, the back faintly glossed; quills blackish brown, on the basal
portion of the inner web varied with white ; tail dark brown, the central rectrices uniform in colour,
the remainder on the inner web dull white, broadly banded with dark brown ; underparts white, the
breast faintly marked with pale brown and dull ochreous brown ; bill blackish horn ; cere blue-grey ;
iris bright yellow; legs pale lead-blue. Total length about 23 inches, culmen 1"9, wing 19 - 3, tail 8"7,
tarsus 2"2.

Adult Female (Silesia) . Resembles the male, but is larger, the head is more marked with dark brown, and
the breast is conspicuously marked with brown, which forms a broad band across the breast. Culmen
2 - inches, wing 20"1, tail 9 - 5, tarsus 2"3.

Young Female (Sarepta, October). Differs from the adult in having the head and hind neck rather more
varied with blackish brown, almost all the feathers on the upper parts of the body and the wings
margined or tipped with white ; tail more conspicuously barred than in the adult, and broadly tipped
with white ; underparts white, the breast^feathers dull light brown, edged and marked with white, and
slightly washed with rufous isabelline.

Nestling (Astrachan). Covered with close, thick, but short down, the general coloration being sooty
blackish; on the head and sides of the neck are longer tufts of light, warm sandy down, growing
closely together so as to hide the other down ; upper throat dull white ; a broad white stripe passes
from the nape to the tail ; upper parts slightly varied with tufts of warm sandy down and a little
white ; abdomen dull white ; inner part of the thighs white.

Obs. Mr. R. Collett informs me that two young Ospreys about eight days old, taken from a nest iu
Norway, were different both in size and colour. "The biggest," he writes (total length 220 millims.),

141

" was enveloped in black velvety down, but not thick. In the down the white shafts of the feathers
(the extremities furnished with downy tufts) could be plainly distinguished ; on the head all the shafts
were black. The smallest of the nestlings (187 millims. long) was covered with white down, the colour
on the back only being black ; above the eye and extending backwards towards the region of the ears
was a blackish stripe ; shafts of feathers indistinct."

Few of our European birds have so extensive a range as the Osprey, which is found throughout
Europe and Africa, from as far north as the forest extends down to South Africa. It also
inhabits the continent of Asia generally, Australia, New Zealand, some of the islands of the
Pacific, and the continent of America from the fur-countries down to Brazil. With us in
Great Britain it is a summer visitant, and breeds in Scotland. In England it has been obtained
on almost every part of the coast, and on several occasions tolerably far inland, as for instance
in Oxfordshire and Shropshire. Mr. Mansel-Pleydell says that in Dorsetshire it is commoner
than the Sea-Eagle. Several have, he says, " been killed at Weymouth and Poole, whose
estuaries attract this bird of prey. Mr. Thompson has an adult male in his collection which
was shot in Weymouth Backwater, September 22nd, 1870, whilst being mobbed by a Kestrel;
a second was seen the next day, but not secured; and one was shot the same year in Poole
Harbour. Several other instances have occurred from the year 1846 to 1870, which is our last
and most recent record. In Christchurch Bay this bird is called the Mullet-Hawk." Mr. Cecil
Smith informs me that in Somersetshire it is met with occasionally in the autumn, and occurs as
a tolerably rare straggler both in North and South Devon. On the east coast it is also met with
on passage ; and Mr. Stevenson writes (B. of Norf. i. p. 5) as follows : — " It still visits us as a
regular migrant in small numbers ; but though formerly, as stated by Messrs. Gurney and Fisher,
most plentiful during the autumn months, it has of late years entirely altered its habits in this
respect, and appears almost invariably in April and May, and occasionally even as late as the
middle of June." As regards its occurrence in Scotland, it used formerly to breed regularly
in several localities ; but, Professor Newton writes (Yarr. Brit. B. i. p. 33), " all this is now
changed. Twenty years since, between 1849 and 1851, Mr. Wolley found that, owing to the
destruction of their occupants, most of the breeding-places named by former observers were
deserted — the only exceptions being a few nests in the northern counties of Sutherland and
Inverness, described by Mr. St. John, in visiting one of which Mr. Wolley nearly lost his life.
Some years passed, and it came to be believed that the Osprey as a native bird had been
thoroughly rooted out; but in 'The Ibis' for 1865 Mr. Rocke stated that the species bred
every year in Inverness, whence Lord Hill had several-times received the young ; but finding it
impossible to rear them, he had requested that in future they might not be disturbed. About
this time, also, information reached Mr. Wolf, the accomplished zoological artist, that a second
spot in another quarter was still tenanted ; and lately Mr. Gray has announced that there were
three or four strictly protected breeding-stations in Ross-shire, and that he has authority for
believing that one in the south-west of the Kingdom is still used. It thus appears that there is
still a sufficient number left to stock the whole of Scotland ; and it may be hoped that the efforts
of those who are anxious for the species to retain its rank as a native of our island will meet
with success." It visits the Orkneys and Hebrides as a straggler ; and Mr. Saxby writes (B. of
Shetl. Isl. p. 9), in Shetland it " is known only as a straggler, appearing at long and uncertain

b2

intervals, and then, as a rule, but singly, although my brother-in-law records the simultaneous
appearance of three or four in the spring of 1843, and of a pair some years previously." In
Ireland, Thompson states, it is only known as an occasional visitor ; and it has not been recorded
from Iceland ; but Professor Newton says that a single specimen was obtained at Godhavn, in
Greenland, by Mr. Whymper, and sent to Copenhagen ; and Mr. H. C. Miiller records one
instance of its occurrence in the Faeroes. In Scandinavia it is common and generally distributed,
but only during the summer season. Mr. Robert Collett informs me that it arrives in Norway late
in April, and breeds on most of the lakes, though nowhere numerously. It is found from Christian-
sand to the Varanger fiord, both in the lowlands and in the mountains up to the birch-region. It
migrates southward in October when ice begins to form on the lakes. Sundevall says that it is found
throughout Sweden as far north as the forest extends, and is a summer visitant, arriving in April
and leaving in September. Pastor Sommerfelt says that it breeds at Karasjok, Alten, and Enare,
and possibly in the conifer-woods in South Varanger, and on the Tana river, where it is known
to the river and fell Lapps, and he saw it at Polmak in 1855. I met with it in most parts of
Finland, from Wiborg to the Lapland frontier ; and Von Wright says that it occurs throughout
that country, both on the coast and on the inland lakes during the summer. In Russia it occurs
at least as far north as Archangel. Sabanaeff met with it in various parts of the Governments of
Jaroslaf and Vologda, especially on the Lake of Kuben. It has also been observed near Moscow
and in the Government of Tula. He met with it on the Ural ; but it was numerous only on
those lakes which abound with fish in the districts of Ekaterinburg and Shadrinsk. In the latter
district it builds in almost woodless parts. Meves met with the Osprey on all the larger Lakes
from the Novaja Ladoga up to Archangel. He writes that he saw an Osprey flying from Lake
Ladoga to a neighbouring wood with a fish in its claws. It held the fish by the head ; and the
whole of the hinder part stuck up in the air, higher than the bird's back, looking like a flag.

In a letter from Dr. Severtzoff, this gentleman informs me that it breeds on the Don and
Bivioug (a river flowing into the Don), in the Voronege Government, where it arrives about the
middle or end of April, and leaves late in September or early in October.

In the Baltic provinces and the eastern portion of North Germany it is a regular summer
visitant, being most numerous on the inland lakes of Brandenburg, Pomerania, and Prussia — but
is much rarer in Western Germany, where it is only rarely known to breed. Kj£erb6lling says
that it is not uncommon in Denmark, and breeds in Seeland, on Lolland and Falster. Mr. Bonnez
obtained its eggs in Jutland. It occurs in Western Germany on passage ; and Mr. Sachse, writing
from Altenkirchen, in Rhenish Prussia, informs me that he only sees it there now and again on
the autumn passage, but a pair sometimes nest in the forests near Neuwied ; and Steinbrenner
records it as breeding near Frankfort-on-the-Main. Mr. Labouchere informs me that it is rare in
Holland, but it is said to have bred there; and it is stated to be rare also in Belgium, occurring
here and there on the Meuse and Scheldt ; but it is said to nest occasionally on the Upper
Meuse in the Luxemburg territory. In France it occurs annually in the northern provinces
during passage, and is tolerably common towards the south and east ; and Professor Barboza du
Bocage records it from Portugal, where, he states, it is common. It occurs in Spain, both in the
summer and in the winter season ; but Colonel Irby states (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 55) that it is most
abundant in the Straits in winter, a pair nest on the rocks westward of Tangier, and another

143

pair breed regularly at Gibraltar. Herr von Homeyer states that it occurs but rarely in the
Balearic Isles; for he only observed two at Cabrera and a pair at Dragonera, which latter
appeared to have a nest in the neighbourhood. In Savoy it is rare ; and Bailly does not believe
that it breeds there. Nor is it common in Italy, where, as a rule, it occurs only in winter ; but
in Sicily it is a partial resident, and is believed to breed there, as it certainly does in Sardinia, a
nestling being in the Cagliari Museum. In Southern Germany it breeds in many localities, and
especially in the well-watered country of Bohemia, where, Dr. A. Fritsch states (J. f. O. 1871,
p. 177), it nests at the Kresicer lake, near Kopidlno, near the Semtiner lake, near Pardubic, in
Southern Bohemia in the Neuhof district and near the ruins of Wittingshausen. Specimens
have been killed at Zavist, near Prague, Eule, Podebrad, Jifin, Piirglitz, Rumburg, at Zbirov
(according to Lokaj), at Hirschberg (according to Fierlinger), and (according to Osterdahl) at
Pardubic. The Eitter von Tschusi-Schmidhofen informs me that it occurs throughout Austria
on passage, and breeds there not uncommonly, but, owing to so many of the small lakes having
been drained off, it has become much rarer. According to Althammer it is very rare in the
Tyrol ; for he only cites one instance of its occurrence ; and Herr von Tschusi himself saw it on
one occasion on the Garda lake. On the Lower Danube it appears to be somewhat scarce. I
have seen it there on one or two occasions ; but Mr. Farman speaks of it as being but rarely met
with in Bulgaria, and only occasionally seen on the coast and on the banks of the Devna lakes.
M. Alleon found it nesting in the forest of Belgrade, in Turkey ; but otherwise it seems usually
to be met with only on passage. In Greece, Dr. Kriiper says, it probably occurs only on passage,
and he does not know of any instance of its breeding there. A specimen in the Museum at
Athens was killed on the 12th March, 1868, in Attica; and Lord Lilford found it numerous in
March and September in Corfu and in Epirus. Professor von Nordmann states that he has not
observed it on the coasts of the Black Sea ; and Menetries does not record it from the Caucasus ;
but De Filippi met with it there. I have no data respecting its occurrence in Asia Minor ; but
it is found in Palestine, and Canon Tristram writes (Ibis, 1865, p. 253) as follows: — "We never
paid a visit, either in winter or spring, to the neighbourhood of Carmel or Kishon without seeing
the Osprey. Thei*e are some lagoons near the mouth of the Kishon admirably adapted for this
bird ; and there it could at any time be seen perched on some naked stump projecting from the
water, or frequently on the coast, on the extremity of the skeleton rib of some stranded wreck.
The marshes of the Zerka (Crocodile river) are also stated to be a favourite resort. We saw the
Osprey as late as April, but did not discover its nest. In spite of the amazing abundance of fish
in the Lake of Galilee, we never noticed this bird there, probably because of the absence of
suitable cover. It has been shot at Beyrout." It visits North-east Africa in winter, and is resident
on the Red Sea. Captain Shelley says that it is plentiful throughout Egypt and Nubia during the
winter. " In the Fayoom," he states, " I found it extremely abundant, and not so shy as along the
banks of the Nile." And Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., informs me that he frequently saw Ospreys on
the sand-banks of the delta, but obtained the first specimen at Mershoom. Going up the Nile
he saw eighteen in two days, but very few coming down. At Gebel Abou Fader a pair seemed
to have a nest in the cliffs. He did not observe any after the 1st of April. Von Heuglin states
(Orn. N.O.-Afr. i. p. 55) that it occurs in the winter along the Nile, southwards to the Kir and
Gazelle River, but is commoner on the delta, where, however, it is not a resident, though it

144

6

remains throughout the whole year along the Red Sea and on the Somali coast. Dickinson
observed it near Chibisa, on the Zambesi.

In North-west Africa it appears to be met with at all seasons of the year. Loche states
that though not numerous in Algeria a few pairs breed there, and he obtained its eggs ; and
Mr. Taczanowski saw a pair at Philippeville in April, which seemed to be preparing to breed there.
Mr. Stark informs me that it breeds commonly in the cliffs in Northern Morocco ; and M. Favier
writes {fide Irby, I. c.) that it is " not uncommon near Tangier, living among the rocks on the
coast, where they nest in March, laying two or three eggs; the young do not fly until July. The
migratory birds arrive in October and November, returning north in March." It has also been
met with in Senegal, on the Gold Coast, and on the Cape-Verde Islands. Mr. E. L. Layard says
(B. of S. Afr. p. 16) that Verreaux records it from South Africa; and Mr. Ayres found it at
Natal, where it frequents the saltwater lakes near the sea ; but he never saw it from the Cape
colony.

In Asia it is very generally distributed. Mr. Blanford informs me that it is rarely seen
in the interior of Persia; but he observed it in the Elburz Mountains, and it is common
about the Caspian and on the Baluchistan coast. Mr. Hume writes (Rough Notes, p. 236),
" Found throughout the lower ranges of the Himalayas, in the rocky gorges, and all the larger
streams, and along the course of the Ganges and the Jumna from their mouths almost to their
sources. I have from time to time observed it in the Cawnpoor, Etawah, Agra, and Allyghur
districts. I met with it also on the Sutledge, at the Sambhur lake, and the Nujjufgurh jheel;
and I recently shot a very fine one close to the Saharunpoor, on the Western-Jumna Canal.
Mr. Brooks says that this species is ' common on the river Tonse, also inland in the Mirzapoor
district where there are jheels and tanks. I shot one at night off a post in the middle of a tank.
Though thus widely distributed, this species is nowhere, I believe, in India numerically abun-
dant.' " Mr. Holdsworth says that it is rare in Ceylon, and he only once observed it, perched on
a buoy in Galle harbour. Lord Walden has two specimens from Ceylon. Dr. Severtzoff writes
to me that he met with it on almost all the large rivers of Turkestan, on the Oxus, the Jaxartes,
the Yli, the Chirckik (which flows into the laxartes), the Koksu (flowing into the Balkhash lake),
always in the summer season ; but he never found its nest. It is, however, numerically scarce,
and during the space of many years he collected there he only obtained three specimens. It is
recorded from Siberia by Schrenck and Badde, but not by Von Middendorff. The former states
that it is not uncommon on the Amoor river ; and Dr. Badde met with it throughout the country
he explored, except on the Mongolian steppes. It was less common oh Lake Baikal than on the
rivers flowing into it. It is a migrant, arriving in the Bureja Mountains about the middle of
April. Dr. Dybowski records it as common in the Darasun district (in Dauria), especially near
the Onon river. Pere David states that he saw two individuals in Mongolia on passage in spring.
Mr. Swinhoe met with it throughout China, Formosa, and Hainan ; and Temminck and Schlegel
record it from Japan. It occurs on nearly all the islands in the Malay and Indian archipelagos,
Ceram, Celebes, Borneo, and Java ; and Mr. Wallace obtained it in New Guinea. It is not
recorded from New Zealand ; but Mr. Gould writes (Handb. B. of Austr. i. p. 22) : — " Though not
an abundant species, it is generally diffused over every portion of Australia suited to its habits.
I myself shot it in Recherche Bay, at the extreme south of Tasmania; and Gilbert found it

145

breeding both at Swan River on the western, and at Port Essington on the northern shore of
Australia."

In the Nearctic Region the Osprey is also widely distributed, being met with from the
Atlantic to the Pacific. In the fur-countries it is tolerably common. I used frequently to see
it in various parts of Canada and New Brunswick, and have known of several nests in the latter
province. It arrives there early in April, and leaves about the middle of September. Mr. Bidgway
says that on the Atlantic coast it is found from Labrador to Florida, with the exception of a
portion of Massachusetts around Boston, where it does not breed, and where it is very rarely met
wijth. It also occurs on the coast of Texas. It is occasionally seen in Jamaica and in Cuba, but
is not known to breed there. Mr. Newton states that it occurs on the island of St. Croix at all
times except during the breeding-season ; and Mr. E. C. Taylor records it from Trinidad. In the
interior of North America it is less numerous than on the coast, but is met with on the lakes and
larger rivers. Mr. A. C. Stark informs me that he found it breeding in single pairs along the
south shore of Lake Superior, from Duluth in Minnesota to Marquette in Michigan, never, how-
ever, in colonies as in the Atlantic States. In Western Minnesota, a country full of lakes, and
apparently well adapted to its habits, he never saw it — though the Bald Eagle is very common,
and he thinks that its abundance may account for the absence of the Osprey. Mr. H. M.
Labouchere also informs me that he observed it on Lake Erie, the Mississippi, and the St. Croix
river, in the State of Minnesota. On the Pacific side of the continent it is widely distributed.
Mr. Dall (Trans. Chic. Acad. Sci. i. p. 272) says that Bischoff obtained specimens, with eggs,
from Sitka. He himself obtained several near Nulato, in May 1867 and 1868. They appear,
he says, to be not uncommon, but frequent the small rivers rather than the Yukon. They are
summer visitants, and build an unusually large nest, to which they return every season.

It is stated to be common on the coast of California ; and, according to Lawrence, Xantus
met with it at Colima, and Grayson on the Tres Marias. It is quite common about Mazatlan.
In Central America it is stated by Mr. Salvin to occur abundantly on both coast-regions, being
especially common about Belize, where it is believed to breed. In the Pacific it is said to occur
only on some of the islands, as, for instance, on the Isle of Pines and the Exchequer group.

• Being exclusively piscivorous, the Osprey is never found far from water, either near rivers or
inland sheets of water, or else on the sea-coast ; but the nest is not unfrequently placed at a
considerable distance from the place where it seeks its finny prey, and I have frequently seen it
carrying fish tolerably long distances from the water to its nest. When in New Brunswick, a
pair of Ospreys usually passed over a shipyard where I was overlooking the men, on their way
from the shores of the Bay of Fundy to their nest, which was situated at some distance in the
forest ; and I have several times fired at one with a rifle when it was carrying a heavy fish, and
sent the bullet close enough to make it drop the fish, which I then secured. Usually they flew
at a great altitude ; but, as a rule, they seemed to pass the same way on their journeys to and
from their nest. I have frequently seen the present species circling gracefully round in wide
circles above the water in search of prey ; and when it perceives a fish it plunges down like an
arrow, after hovering for a moment as if to make sure, and dashes into the water, throwing
up a shower of spray, and seems rarely to miss its aim. Having secured the fish, it emerges,
directly, and soon regains its former altitude by mounting in the air in a spiral direction; and.

8

so far as I could judge, it rarely strikes a fish unless it is close to the surface. Occasionally
it will strike a fish too large to lift ; and in such case, unless able to extricate its talons, it is
dragged under the surface again and again until it is drowned. Professor Newton states that
Mr. Lloyd records one having met with this fate ; and Mr. Knox mentions a case in which the
bird, having landed its prey, was unable to extricate its talons therefrom, and so fell a victim to
the crook of a shepherd who had witnessed the capture. I well recollect, when collecting along
the shore of the Bay of Fundy, just outside Musquash harbour, seeing an Osprey, after hovering
a short time, strike a fish which it was unable to lift ; and after being dragged beneath the surface
time after time, and making every effort to release itself, it was at length carried out and disap-
peared. Unfortunately no boat was at hand ; or I could, I fully believe, have secured both bird
and fish. In a note received from Mr. Bobert Collett, of Christiania, he says, " sometimes the
Osprey strikes a fish of too large a size, and thus perishes in its attempts to secure it ; and in one
of our lakes a huge pike was caught which had still attached to its back the remains of an
Osprey's skeleton."

The Osprey feeds on various kinds of fish. In New Brunswick I generally found that in the
fresh water it fed on the red trout, and probably also on the large grey lake-trout, there called
togue, and in the salt water on shad. Naumann states that it is especially fond of carp and
trout ; and Mr. Collett informs me that in Norway it feeds chiefly on trout (Salmo eriox, var.
fario) and pike, as well as on bream and different species of the genus Leuciscus. It carries the
fish lengthwise, and not crosswise, doubtless so as to avoid being impeded in its flight. Professor
Newton says that one " in the Gardens of the Zoological Society of London, when a fish was
given to it, was observed to seize it across the body, placing the inner and outer toes at right
angles with the middle and hind toes, and, digging-in the claws, held the fish most firmly by four
opposite points, not relaxing its hold or altering the position of the toes, but picking out the
portions of flesh from between them with great dexterity."

.The nest of the Osprey is placed either on a tree or else on a rock, according to locality ;
but, so far as I can judge, it nests in preference on trees, if in a wooded district. Mr. Collett
informs me that in Norway it usually nests on trees, but in a bare treeless locality it places its
nest on a rock or on the ground ; and at Jsederen and in the Stavanger district, where there are
no trees, it always nests on small islets and on large stones or rocks in the lakes. A nest he
examined near Salsvand, on the Foldenfjord, which was placed on the top of a large pine, was
constructed of sticks and lined with moss and lichens. The nest is usually a very bulky structure,
the lower portion being very large. It is constructed of stout sticks tolerably closely worked
together ; and the cup, which is flat, is composed of moss. Mr. Wolley describes (Ooth. Wolleyana,
i. p. 62) one from Sutherlandshire as follows: — "The nest'was on the south-west side of a large
stone, loose, or apparently so ; and its level was on a line with the top of the stone. Below the
stone was some turf and grass, and a little shrub growing. It seemed very compact, like an
ants' ; and at the top was much moss, but disordered as if not touched since last year. The
landing appeared to be perfectly easy. The stone looked from the bank to be about five feet
high. The nest seemed to be made of sticks, mixed up with fine turf-soil, and apparently a little
heather amongst it." And one in a tree in East Bothnia was, he says (p. 66), " made of good-
sized sticks, large at the top, lined with tree-hair and moss." With us in Europe, so far as I

147

9

know, the Osprey always nests singly ; and it is somewhat remarkable that in America it should
not unfrequently breed in communities. Messrs. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway say (N.-Am. Birds,
iii. p. 189): — "In some localities the Fish-Hawk nests in large communities, as many as three
hundred pairs having been observed nesting on one small island. When a new nest is to be
constructed, the whole community has been known to take part in its completion. They are
remarkably tolerant towards smaller birds, and permit the Purple Grakle (Quiscalus purpureus)
to construct its nests in the interstices of their own. Wilson observed no less than four of these
nests thus clustered in a single Fish-Hawk's nest, with a fifth on an adjoining branch. It appears
that the female alone undertakes the cares of incubation, the male supplying her with food
during the time she is sitting; but when the young are hatched both parents cooperate in
obtaining food for their offspring until they are able to cater for themselves."

The number of eggs deposited is usually three, but occasionally four. Mr. C. Sachse informs
me that out of about eighty eggs sent to him by his brother from Ramuck, near Konigsberg, in
East Prussia, all are in clutches of three, excepting three clutches, which consist of four eggs
each. These eggs were all taken between the 20th and 30th of April. He received, however,
last year (1875) a clutch from near Berlin which were taken very late in the season. At Ramuck,
Mr. Sachse adds, the Peregrine usually takes possession of the Osprey's nest the following
year.

The eggs of the Osprey are subject to considerable variation. I possess a large series from
various parts of Europe and North America, most of which are white, richly spotted and blotched
with deep chestnut-red, and sparingly marked with a few purplish grey underlying shell-blurs or
markings ; but some have the ground-colour buffy white, the markings very large and close and
blurred, not clearly defined. In some there is here and there a large blotch, the rest of the egg
being comparatively sparingly blurred and blotched ; and in one or two the deep-red blotches are
so close as almost to hide the ground-colour. In size they vary considerably, the largest mea-
suring 2|^ by lf| inch, and the smallest 2^ by lf^, the normal size being about 2^f by
lfiy inch. A very rich series of the eggs of this bird is figured by Professor Newton in the
' Ootheca Wolleyana.'

The cry of the Osprey is not loud or harsh ; and it is by no means a noisy bird. Naumann
compares its note to the syllables kai, kai, kai; and when alarmed it utters a note like gegiekere,
or occasionally a harsh krau.

When in Norwich lately I looked over the splendid series of Ospreys in the Museum of that
town, and fully agree with Mr. Gurney in considering that there is but one species of Osprey.
In a letter received not long since from this gentleman he says : — " I believe that the Osprey is
cosmopolitan, and that Mr. Sharpe is wrong in treating P. leucoceplialus as distinct. I believe,
with a sufficient geographical series, they would be found to run into each other so that no line
could be drawn between them. Speaking generally, I think it will be found that the largest
Ospreys are those inhabiting the Atlantic coasts of America, and that they become smaller as
you travel eastward from there, until, when you get nearly round the world, you find the smallest
in Australia and on the Pacific coast of America." In these views I generally concur; but I
cannot help thinking that the difference in size is frequently individual and not climatic. I have,
for instance, a male from Skane, in Sweden, which is scarcely larger than the small Australian

c

148

10

form ; for it measures only — culmen 1*6, wing 17 - 2, tail 8 - 05, tarsus 2*15 ; and Mr. Sharpe states
that a specimen (of the form he treats as a distinct species under the name of Pandion leucoce-
phalus) killed by Mr. Wallace in New Guinea had the wing 17 inches long.

As regards the American bird, which Mr. Ridgvvay keeps distinct under the name of Pandion
haliaetus, var. carolinensis, I cannot agree with him that it is advisable to separate it from our
European bird. He says that " in eight out of twelve North-American adult specimens there is
but the slightest amount of spotting on the breast, in two of those none whatever, and in four
there is just a trace of these spots ;" and he adds that, if any European birds occur with the
breast immaculate, he will at once waive all claims to distinctness for the American bird. I
observe that in European examples the marking on the breast varies extremely ; and in the male
above described the markings are very faint indeed, as will be seen by the Plate. Dr. Severtzoff
informs me that in Turkestan he has obtained " three examples which had the breast white, with
only a few small lanceolate spots, scarcely visible."

The specimens figured are : — on the one Plate an adult male, with the breast but slightly
marked, and an adult female with the marking strongly developed ; and on the second Plate a
young female and a nestling, — all four being the specimens above described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, $ . Skane, Sweden, September 18th, 1874 (Meves) . b, <S . Southern France, December (Schliiter) . c, $ .
Sarepta, October (Moschler). d, 6 ad. Astrachan, April. e,pull. Astrachan (W. Schliiter). /, 2 . Gwadar,
Baluchistan, December 1871 (TV. T. Blanford).

E Mus. Howard Saunders,
a, j . Malaga, Spain, December 4th. b, ? . Malaga, November 15th, 1872 (H. S.).

E Mus. Norv.

a, $ ad. Tangier (Favier). b, 6 , c, 2 ad. Natal (Ayres). d, 6 ad. India (Warwick), e, f. Amoy, China
(R. Swinhoe). g, ad. Australia (Warwick). h, 2 , i, S ad. Sydney (Strange). k, <J. New Caledonia
(Verreaux). l,juv. Canada (Hadcraft) . m. Gallina, Mississippi (Dyson) . n. Monterey (A. S. Taylor).
o,juv. Honduras (Calvert). p,juv. Jamaica (Rev. J. M. Phillips), q, ad. St. Croix (A. Newton).

149

Order III. STEGANOPODES.

Family PELECANID^l.

Genus PHAEACROCORAX.

Phalacrocorax, Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 511 (1760).

Pelecanus apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. p. 216 (1766).

Procellaria apud Miiller, Zool. Dan. Prodr. p. 18 (1776).

Carlo apud Meyer, Taschenb. deutsch. Vogelk. ii. p. 576 (J 810).

Halieus apud Illiger, Prodr. Mamm. et Av. p. 279 (1811).

Hydrocorax apud Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. viii. p. 83 (1817).

Cormoranus apud Baillon, Mem. Soc. Roy. d'Emul. dAbbev. 1833, p. 77.

Grauculus apud G. R. Gray in Dieff. Trav. ii. App. p. 201 (1843).

Gracalus apud G. R. Gray, Voy. Ereb. & Terr. Birds, p. 20 (1844).

Microcarbo apud Bonaparte, Cat. Parzud. p. 10 (1856).

Until quite recently the birds belonging to the family Pelecanidse have been ranged with the
water-birds, on account of their having webbed feet ; but it has now been clearly shown that they
must be placed between the Accipitres and the Herodii, where I have accordingly inserted them.
The first genus in this family, Phalacrocorax, is represented in the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental,
Australian, Nearctic, and Neotropical Regions, four species being found within the limits of the
Western Palsearctic, Region.

The Cormorants frequent the sea-coast, as well as inland sheets of water, and are especially
partial to lakes and ponds which are surrounded by high trees. As they feed entirely on fish,
which they capture with great dexterity by diving, they are always found near and spend most
of their time on the water. They swim with great ease and swiftness, sink themselves in the
water when alarmed, and dive extremely well. They perch on rocks and trees, sitting very
erect, walk very little, have a quick, steady, and even flight, and are generally very shy and
cautious. They construct large, bulky nests of sticks lined with grass and weeds, which they
place on a tree or rock, and lay white eggs, the surface being chalky, and the shell underneath
bluish.

Phalacrocorax carlo, the type of the genus, has the bill about as long as the head, straight,
slender, compressed, the gape extending far beyond the eyes ; ridge of the upper mandible
convex, separated by narrow grooves from the sides, which are scaly; unguis narrow, decurved
to a point, thin-edged ; under mandible straight, scaly, with the tip obliquely truncate ; face in
front bare, the mouth wide and dilatable ; nostrils obliterated in the adult, open in the young ;
wings rather short but broad, the second and third quills longest ; tail rather long, rounded, the
feathers with very strong shafts ; feet short, stout, placed far behind ; the tibia full feathered to
the joint; tarsus short, reticulated; toes webbed, the outer one longer, the inner short; claws
strong, curved, that on the middle toe pectinate.

126

150

388

J.&Keu

CORMORANT.

P H.AL ACROCOR AX CARBO.

151

PHALACKOCOKAX CAEBO.

(CORMORANT.)

Phalacrocorax, Briss. Orn. vi. p. 511, pi. xlv. (1760).

Pelecanus carbo, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 216 (1766).

Procellaria pelecanus, Mull. Zool. Dan. Prodr. p. 18 (1776).

Le Cormoran, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. viii. p. 310, pi. xxvi. (1781).

Pelecanus sinensis, Lath. Ind. Orn. Suppl. p. 70 (1801).

Carbo cormoranus, Meyer, Taschenb. deutsch. Vogelk. ii. p. 576 (1810).

Halieus carbo (Linn.), Illiger, Prodr. Mammal, et Av. p. 279 (1811).

Phalacrocorax carbo (L.), Leach, Syst. Cat. M. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 34 (1816).

Hydrocorax carbo (L), Vieill. Nouv. Diet. viii. p. 83 (1817).

Hydrocorax sinensis (Lath.), Vieill. torn. cit. p. 86 (1817).

Phalacrocorax novas-hollandiw, Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xiii. pt. 1, p. 93 (1825).

Phalacrocorax sinensis (Lath.), Steph. ut supra (1825).

Carbo glacialis, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 817 (1831).

Carbo arboreus, C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 818 (1831).

Carbo subcormoranus, C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 819 (1831).

X Carbo ater, Less. Traite d'Orn. p. 604 (1831).

Cormoranus crassirostris, Baill. Mem. Soc. Boy d'Emul. d'Abbeville, 1833, p. 77.

Phalacrocorax medius, Nilss. Skand. Fauna, Fogl. ii. p. 478 (1835).

Phalacrocorax carboides, Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 156.

Carbo albiventris, Tickell, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xi. p. 463 (1842).

Halieus cormoranus (Mey.), J. F. Naumann, Nat. Vog. Deutschl. xi. p. 52 (1842).

Graucalus carboides (Gould), G. R. Gray, in Dieff. Trav. ii. App. p. 201 (1843).

Gracalus carboides (Gould), G. R. Gray, Voy. Ereb. and Ter., Birds, p. 20 (1844).

Graculus sinensis (Lath.), G. R. Gray, Gen. of B. p. 667 (1845).

Graculus medius (Nilss.), G. B. Gray, ut supra (1845).

Graculus novw-hollandiw (Steph.), G. R. Gray, ut supra (1845).

Graculus carboides (Gould), G. R. Gray, ut supra (1845).

Phalacrocorax leucotis, Blyth, Cat. B. Mus. As. Soc. p. 298 (1849).

Carbo filamentosus, Temm. & Schl. Fauna Japonica, Aves, p. 129 (1850).

Carbo capillatus, Temm. & Schl. op. cit. pis. 83, 83 b (1850).

Phalacrocorax glacialis, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 360 (1855).

Phalacrocorax arboreus, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Phalacrocorax subcormoranus, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Phalacrocorax humilirostris, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Phalacrocorax brachyrhynchos, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1855).

Phalacrocorax capillatus (Temm.), Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 168 (1857).

4 y 2

152

Phalacrocorax carlo major, Nilss. Skand. Faun. Fogl. ii. p. 515 (1858).
Phalacrocorax carlo medius, Nilss. ut supra (1858).

Bailliare-bodhain, Sgarlh-luill, Gaelic; Grand Cormoran, French; Corvo marinho, Portu-
guese ; Cuervo marino, Spanish ; Cormorano, Marangone, Italian ; Margun, Maltese ;
Gharrad, Moorish ; Kormoran, Scharle, Wasserrale, German ; Aalscholver, Schollevaar,
Dutch ; Kormoran-Skarv, Danish ; Hilling ur, Fseroese ; Okaitsok, Greenlandic ; Skarfr,
DilasJcarfr, Icelandic ; Skarv, Aalekraake, Norwegian ; Hafstjdder, Alkraka, Storskarf,
Swedish ; Kalakorppa, Haikara, Finnish ; Baklann, Baklann bolchoi, Russian.

Figuroe notaliles.

D'Aubenton, PL Enl. 927 ; Werner, Atlas, Palmipedes, pi. 64 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 50,
Suppl. taf. 32 ; Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 187, 188 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 53. figs. 1, 5 ;
Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 279 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 55. figs. 1, 2 ; Gould, B.
of Eur. pi. 407 ; id. B. of G. Brit. v. pi. 52 ; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pis. 324, 325, 326 ;
Temm. & Schl. Fauna Japon. pis. 83, 83 b; Audub. B. of Am. pi. 415.

Ad. ptil. test, niger viridi-caeruleo nitens : nucha cristata, : colli lateribus striis parvis filamentosis albis ornatis :
plaga alba utrinque postoculari descendente, subter gulam conjunctis : dorsi lateribus scapularibus et
tectricibus alarum viridi-seneo-fuscis vix griseo tinctis, plumis viridi-uigro marginatis : cauda et remi-
gibus nigris vix cinereo tinctis : plaga, hypochondriaca. magna alba : rostro fusco, versus basin flavido-
albido : gula, nuda flava, regione ophthalmica nuda viridi-fusca, hide viridi : pedibus nigris.

Ad. ptil. Mem. plaga, subter gulam albida, capite et collo striis filamentosis numerosis albis ubique ornatis,
corpore viridius nitente.

Adult in summer (Faeroes, 2nd April) . Chin and sides of the head in a broad band skirting the bare part
at the base of the bill white, rest of the head, neck, and entire underparts rich glossy purplish black,
in some parts with a faint bottle-green tinge; feathers on the hind crown and nape elongated; a pure
white patch on each thigh, and a few straggling hair-like white lines still remain on some parts of the
upper neck; back, scapulars, and wing-coverts bronze-green with a greyish tinge, margined with
greenish black ; a line along the centre of the back, the lower back, and the rump uniformly coloured
like the underparts ; tail-feathers black close to the shaft, but otherwise greyish black, the shafts
greyish blue at the base and becoming black towards the tip ; quills glossy black with a greyish tinge ;
beak dusky brown, but yellowish white at the base; gular sac yellow; bare space round the eye
greenish brown; iris grass-green; legs and feet black. Total length about 34 inches, culmen 36,
gape 4*1, wing 13'5, tail 7'0, tarsus 2 - 7.

Adult Female. Kesembles the male, but is somewhat smaller in size.

Adult Male in winter (Orkney) . Differs from the male in winter in having the band across the throat dull
white, the general tinge of colour is rather more of a bottle-green and less of a purplish green, and the
head and neck are covered with very slender white filamentous plumelets.

Young. Upper parts generally dark brown, the feathers on the back narrowly margined with blackish
brown and tinged with bronze ; fore part of the neck brownish white marked with dark brown ; under-

153

parts dull white slightly marked with brown ; wings and tail dark brown ; bill dark brown above and
pale brown below.

The Cormorant inhabits Europe and Asia, in suitable localities, ranging down to South Africa,
Australia, and New Zealand ; and in America it frequents the Atlantic coasts from Hudson's Bay
down to Georgia and the Carolinas.

In Great Britain this bird is widely distributed, being met with on most parts of the coast
suitable to its habits, but is more numerous in the north than in the south. It is, Mr. Cecil
Smith informs me, by no means common in Guernsey, as the Shag, which is there always called
" Cormorant," almost entirely takes its place in all the islands. It is, however, resident along
the south coasts of England; but Mr. Cecil Smith says that it is only a chance or occasional
visitant to Somersetshire, and the few that do occur on the coast or inland are usually in imma-
ture dress. On the east coast of England it is rarer than in former days. Sir Thomas Browne
speaks of the Cormorant breeding on trees at Reedham in his time, and adds that from there
King Charles the First was wont to be supplied ; and Mr. Stevenson informs me, " even within
a comparatively recent period Cormorants have nested occasionally in Suffolk in the trees
surrounding the Fritton Decoy ; but now it occurs only as a straggler in winter, and then
chiefly in immature plumage. The neighbourhood of the coast and the larger broads is their
chief resort; but it has been seen as far inland as the Yare, above Norwich." Formerly it
used to nest on the rocks at Flamborough, on the Yorkshire coast; but it has been driven
away by the ceaseless persecution of summer excursionists from the neighbouring watering-
places. Mr. Cordeaux says that he has lately seen it off the Headland in July ; but the nearest
breeding-station to the Humber is on the Farn Islands, where, according to Mr. Hancock, it is
common, and resident.

Referring to its presence in Scotland, Mr. Robert Gray writes (B. of West of Scotland,
p. 454): — "The well-known figure of this conspicuous bird is a never failing accessory to the
coast scenery of many districts of the mainland of Scotland, especially the south-western counties.
In Ayrshire and Wigtonshire it is much more common than its ally, the Green Cormorant ; and
in these counties it is found breeding on rocky precipices overhanging the sea, where it occupies
separate ledges, as well as on islands in inland lakes, at a distance of many miles from the coast.
There is a large breeding- colony on Loch Moan, in Ayrshire — a place but little visited, and
distinguished for nothing but these Cormorants and the sterile scenery by which they are
surrounded. In the breeding-season of 1867 this loch was visited by a fishing party, who,
finding nothing in the loch itself, every fish having been devoured by the birds, launched a boat
they had brought across the hills, and proceeded to the island, where they built a pyramid of
Cormorants' eggs, which they had no difficulty in gathering, to a height of two or three feet,
and smashed the entire lot with heavy stones. One of the party, an officer in the 33rd Regiment,
informed me that, though the eggs were not counted, he was certain of more than a thousand
having been destroyed. A similar colony existed a few years ago on the lochs of Mochrum and
Drumwalt, in Wigtonshire. In 1867, when visiting these lochs, I found the numbers of the
Cormorants greatly diminished ; and I have since been informed that only a few pairs are now to
be found nesting there. Their unwelcome presence had been too much for the resident keeper's
goodnature ; and, indeed, it would be a strong liking for Cormorants that would tolerate even

the temporary visits of several hundreds of these feathered poachers where the fishing is sup-
posed to be 'preserved.' In the autumn of 1870, after the young birds had left the district, I
counted nearly fifty groups of these gaunt creatures on the coast between the point below
Sinniness and the village of Port William, a distance of eight or ten miles ; there were from
fifteen to twenty in each company ; and in some instances the birds were sitting drying their
wings within thirty yards of the public road. I saw no Green Cormorants among them ; nor
could I discern a single bird of either species on the water, all being in a state of rest. A very
large proportion of these Cormorants appeared to be birds of the year ; but 1 could not learn
with certainty where they had been bred. From their extraordinary numbers within a com-
paratively limited space, it was evident that they had located themselves on a good fishing-
ground. Several times I observed two or three birds rise together as I drove along the road
which skirts the shore, and, after attaining to a considerable height, steer in a straight line
across the hills ; and I concluded they were flying to some favourite inland roosting-place. On
the Ayrshire coast there are several breeding-stations on the line of rocks overhanging the sea
between Ballantrae and the entrance to Loch Ryan. The colonies which occupy these nesting-
places are very conspicuous when viewed at sea.

" In the Outer Hebrides the common Cormorant is much less numerous than on the south-
western mainland, its place there being to a great extent occupied by the next species [Ph.
graculus]. It frequents various caves on the east side of the Long Island from Barra to Lewis,
and is also found on the Haskeir rocks. Within the circle of the inner islands it is found
breeding on some parts of the coasts of Skye, Mull, and Islay, likewise in Rum, Eigg, and
Canna. Mr. Graham informs me that it is frequently met with in Iona and Staffa, though it
is by no means so common as the Green Cormorant. On all these islands it breeds apart from
its ally, and invariably perches at a high elevation on the rocks."

In Shetland the Cormorant is resident and common, though less so than the Shag ; but it is
more often seen on fresh water than this latter species. In Ireland it is numerous and sedentary
in suitable localities.

In Greenland it is said to be tolerably abundant ; and Holboll states that it breeds from the
Godhaab fjord northward as far as he went. It has also been observed on the east coast.
According to Faber it breeds only in the north of Iceland, and is a winter visitant in the south ;
but Herr Preyer says that it breeds on the Vestmannaeyjar. Professor Newton remarks, it is
certainly less often seen in Iceland than the Shag, but in the Faeroes it is common and resident.
Mr. Robert Collett informs me that the Cormorant breeds on the Norwegian coast from Stavanger
to the Varanger fiord, most numerously above the arctic circle, nesting always in the cliffs, and
never in trees. During passage it penetrates up the fiords, and is even seen occasionally on
rivers in the interior.

In Sweden, according to Nilsson, this bird is found in autumn and winter on the southern
coast, and breeds on the Baltic coasts and islands at least as high up as Blekinge ; but it does
not breed in Finland, only occurring there on passage. Dr. Palmen states that it nests in
Lapland ; and he cites numerous instances of its occurrence in various parts of Finland down to
Helsingfors and Ekenas. Sabanaeff says that the Cormorant breeds numerously on the coasts of
the White Sea, and is found in Central Russia on passage, nesting also on the coasts of the

155

Black Sea and Sea of Azoff; and Artzibascheff states that it is common on the Sarpa, but
especially so at the mouth of the Volga, where its numbers are almost beyond conception.

In Poland a few used to nest near Warsaw about forty years ago, but now it is of accidental
and rare occurrence. In North Germany, however, it is tolerably common, and nests in many
localities, in spite of endeavours to keep its numbers down.

Formerly, Mr. Collin writes (Skand. Fugl. p. 708), the Cormorant used to breed in several
forests in Denmark, especially near the sea, as, for instance, at Slien, Holdnses, Skanderborg, on
Lolland and Falster, at Nakke-bolle, in Fyen, Karrebaksminde, and Grevinge, in Seeland, &c. ;
but now, being so destructive to the forests and fisheries, it has been nearly everywhere exter-
minated. He gives particulars of a few localities where it still breeds in spite of every effort in
most places to drive it off. Mr. Benzon informs me that it arrives in Denmark about the middle
of March, and leaves late in August ; but stragglers are met with throughout the winter in places
where the water remains open. He remarks that small colonies are to be found nesting here
and there in the large forests on the coast, especially near a fiord or bay. Mr. H. M. Labouchere
informs me, " at one time the Cormorant used to breed in large numbers on a piece of land near
Rotterdam, which from this fact was called Schollevaars Eiland (Cormorants' Island) ; but since
the water surrounding this place was drained a few years ago, and the woods on it were cut
down, they have quite disappeared from those parts and are now only found in a few localities.
I have, however, often observed them during the breeding-season on the meres near Naarden
and other parts of the country, and have no doubt they still breed in several of the less-populated
parts." It is common on the coast of Belgium and at the mouth of the Scheldt throughout the
greater part of the year, and occasionally visits the inland rivers and sheets of water. In France
it is to some extent migratory ; but numbers breed along the cliffs from Boulogne to Dieppe, on
the coast of Brittany, and near Biarritz. M. Hardy remarks that every year individuals in
immature plumage may be found breeding near Dieppe. It is said to be common on the coast
of Portugal; and both Colonel Irby and Mr. Howard Saunders state that it is generally distri-
buted along the coast and on the rivers of Spain in the winter.

Passing eastward again, I find it recorded by Bailly as found in autumn and winter on the
lakes of Savoy; but only young birds, and never adults, are seen there. In Italy, according to
Salvadori, it is tolerably numerous ; but whilst resident in some parts, it occurs in others prin-
cipally in autumn and winter. In Tuscany it breeds on trees in several of the large swamps,
and nests also in Sicily, and on rocky parts of Sardinia, where, Mr. Brooke writes (Ibis, 1873,
p. 345), it is " extremely common. One morning early in March I counted forty-three in one
flock, flying like wild geese from the sea to feed during the day on the stagno of Scaffa. Many
of them had the white spot on the hip." In Malta, according to Mr. C. A. Wright (Ibis, 1864,
p. 154), the Cormorant is " not uncommon, but is not very regular in its visits. Generally
appears in the winter months. I have seen it, however, in spring, summer, and autumn."

In Southern Germany it is not rare. "Every spring," Dr. Fritsch writes (J. f. Orn. 1872,
p. 373), "small flocks of these birds, which are very destructive to fish, come to Bohemia.
They were plentifulin 1836 and 1846 near Pardubic; and there is no doubt they would settle
here if allowed to do so. In old game-lists they figure under the name of 'Wasserrabe;' and
a premium of eighteen kreutzers was paid per head. In the spring of 1863 a flock of fifteen

156

appeared near Kamenic, not far from Jicin. According to Mr. Lokaj a strange occurrence
happened two years ago near Rusin, not far from Prague. During the night a fire broke out in
this village, when two Cormorants, which probably had been roosting in the Sternthiergarten
close by, appeared, flying in circles over the fire, one of them falling at last into it ; and the
other dropping close by, was caught alive."

In Transylvania, Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown write (Ibis, 1875, p. 431), it is "rare,
but is sometimes found on the larger rivers in winter. Herr Buda Adam killed one near Buss,
on the Strell, in August ; and a young bird was shot near Hatzeg. The specimen in the
Klausenburg Museum is from Felvincz. On the 24th June, 1867, Herr Otto shot an adult female
at Felvincz ; and again, on the 24th July of the same year, seven were seen near Klausenburg,
and two of them were shot."

It is found on the Danube, and breeds numerously, Messrs. Elwes and Buckley state, on
the Bosphorus and Sea of Marmora, as also, according to Dr. Kriiper, in Greece and the Cyclades.
Captain Sperling states that in December when Duck-shooting at Petala, on the coast of Greece,
a large flock of not less than two thousand Cormorants passed over his head ; and Lord Lilford
informs me that he found it by no means uncommon on the coasts of Epirus in winter.

It is found on the coast of Asia Minor ; and, Canon Tristram says, is very numerous on those
of Palestine, and visits the mouth of the Jordan regularly, where he met with it sitting on a
" snag," and watching for the stupefied fishes. In Egypt, according to Captain Shelley, it is
very plentiful ; and he believes that it breeds in the Fayoom ; but Von Heuglin remarks that it
disappears from the Nile in March and April. He says that it visits the lagoons of Lower Egypt
in large flocks, and in Central and Upper Egypt it is extremely numerous, especially amongst the
rocks of Minieh, Farschut, and Abulfeda ; but he did not observe it south of Assouan, though
Brehm states that it straggles to the Sudan. In December and January he saw flocks of
Cormorants at Ain Musah, in Arabia Petrasa. According to Loche it is resident in the large
lakes of Algeria. Mr. Salvin observed several in the lagoon of El Baheira ; and Favier {fide
Colonel Irby, Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 207) states that it is found near Tangier from December to
February, and frequents the coast, lakes, and rivers, where it is not uncommon. It ranges
at least as far south as Damara Land, where, according to Mr. Andersson, it is not rare in
Walwich Bay ; and Mr. Layard believes that he has seen it in Simon's Bay in breeding-dress ;
but the species included by him (B. of S. Afr. p. 380) under the name of Graculus carbo proves
on further examination to be Graculus lucidus, Licht., a distinct species from our European
Cormorant. Mr. Barratt, however, remarks (Ibis, 1876, p. 214) that he shot an example of
Phalacrocorax carbo in the Orange Free State.

In Asia the present species ranges eastward to Japan, and south to Australia and New
Zealand.

Major St. John states that the common Cormorant abounds on the lakes and rivers of
Southern Persia ; and, according to Mr. Blanford (E. Pers. ii. p. 298), it is " excessively abundant
on the Makran coast. Every evening long processions of Cormorants, flying at a considerable
elevation, used to pass from one to the other of the bays on each side of the isthmus on which
the village is built. I heard that all disappeared, with most of the Gulls, Pelicans, &c, about
March. Cormorants are very abundant, too, on the Caspian." Mr. Hume (Stray Feathers, i.

157

p. 289) found it " abundant in Sindh. Small parties were occasionally noticed the whole way
down the rivers Jhelum, Chenah, and Indus, from Khelum to Kurrachee ;" and he saw a few
also at the Muncher lake, and shot a male in almost full breeding-plumage at Muscat. Dr.
Jerdon writes (B. of India, ii. p. 861), " the large Cormorant of Britain is found throughout
India, is more rare towards the south, and is there chiefly found in rivers that run through
forest and hilly ground, but occasionally occurs in large tanks in the open country. In the
north of India it appears more common, especially in the well-watered province of Bengal, where
it chiefly frequents rivers, and on rivers within the Himalayas. It is rather strange that it is not
included in Gray's ' List of Hodgson's Nepal Birds.' It is very generally found in pairs or singly,
occasionally four or five together. I am not aware if it breeds in this country ; but it probably
does so in suitable spots." Mr. Ball records it from Chota Nagpur, Captain E. A. Butler from
Mount Aboo and Northern Guzerat ; and in Eastern Turkestan, Mr. J. Scully (Stray Feathers,
iv. p. 205) writes, " this Cormorant is, I believe, a permanent resident in Kashgharia — in the
plains. The first specimen was obtained on the banks of the Yarkand river, near Tarim Langar.
In the beginning of August I found these birds quite common at Tungtash, near Karghalik.
They were then nearly always seen in parties of five, sitting on the top of a mud cliff — often
thirty feet high — immediately overlooking the water below, one of the party acting as sentinel."
In Burmah, Mr. Oates says (Stray Feathers, v. p. 169), it " breeds in vast numbers in the Myilkyo
swamp, placing its nest in low, apparently dead, trees which rear their heads fifteen or twenty
feet above the water."

In Siberia the Cormorant is found during the summer in the south-eastern portions of the
country. Von Schrenck says that it is to be met with not only on the sea-coast, but on the
Upper Amoor and Ussuri rivers ; and Dr. Radde states that directly the ice on the rivers breaks
up in the spring the Cormorants appear in great numbers, and he found them common on the
Selenga and Uda rivers, and breeding on rocks in two places on the western Baikal shores, viz.
on the Baklan rock and about twenty versts above the village of Goloustnaja. On the Upper
Amoor the Cormorant is rare. Mr. Taczanowski remarks that it is numerous in Dauria, and that
examples from the Argun river have the heads whiter than is the case with European birds.

In Mongolia, Colonel Przevalsky writes (in Bowl. Orn. Misc.), large numbers Were seen on
Lake Dalai-nor in March, and in the Hoang-ho valley in April. At Koko-nor the first appeared
on the 12th March, and soon became abundant ; but very few pairs remained there to breed.
Early in March they arrived at Lake Hanka, and were numerous about the middle of that month
on the Sungatch. Not being molested by man, the Cormorants were very tame in Mongolia and
the Ussuri country. Mr. Swinhoe found it throughout China and Formosa, but in the south
only in the winter ; and, according to Pere Armand David, it inhabits the east coasts of Asia up
to Kamtchatka, and is often seen on the rivers and lakes in the interior of China and Mongolia.
The Chinese use tamed Cormorants for fishing, and hatch their eggs under hens. Messrs. Finsch
and Hartlaub say that they have compared examples from Castries Bay, on the east coast of
Mantchuria, which were identical with European birds. It is found in Japan, where it was
obtained by Siebold and Whitely, and ranges southward to Australia and New Zealand. Pro-
fessor Schlegel has examined specimens from Sumatra, Australia, and New Zealand, which he
unites with our European species without hesitation, those from Sumatra being moderate in size,

4z

158

8

and those from Australia and New Zealand rather large, but smaller than American examples,
not differing, however, at all in plumage.

In Australia, Mr. Gould writes (B. of Austr. ii. p. 489), " though enjoying a wide range over
the southern part of the country, it is nowhere so abundant as in Tasmania. In this island it not
only inhabits all the bays and inlets of the sea, but it also ascends the large rivers even to the
lakes in the middle of the island, on several of which it breeds. In Western Australia it is
tolerably abundant at King George's Sound ; it also ascends the Swan, and is sometimes observed
far up the Murray In South Australia and New South Wales it frequents similar localities."
Mr. Buller considers that the Australian and New-Zealand Cormorant can be separated specifically
from Phalacrocorax carbo ; but I quite agree with Professor Schlegel and Dr. Finsch that they
are identical. In New Zealand, according to Mr. Buller, this species is very common on the
coasts and within the mouths of the tidal rivers.

In the Nearctic Region the Cormorant is found only on the Atlantic coasts from Hudson's
Bay and Labrador down to those of Carolina and Georgia, penetrating even, though rarely, into
the interior as far as the Missouri river, breeding in the northern portions of its range, and
occurring in the south in winter. American examples all run large in size ; and one I obtained
in the Bay of Fundy measures — culmen 3*45 inches, gape 4T5, wing 14 - 4, tail 8"0, tarsus 3 - 0,
being thus, even for an American specimen, a large bird. In Europe, however, specimens vary
very greatly in size, even from the same localities, those from the north, however, being as a
rule considerably larger than those inhabiting southern latitudes.

Though more frequently seen on fresh water than its congener the Shag, the Cormorant is
more especially a sea-bird ; and with us in England it is, as a rule, found on the sea-coasts, and
only exceptionally on the rivers and fresh water. Voracious to a degree, it is a terrible scourge
in places where fish are preserved, and a single pair will soon clear a small loch of fish if allowed
free access to it without being disturbed. In the Bay of Fundy I procured a fine old male, out of
which I took twelve good-sized herrings, all in a tolerable state of preservation ; and it is some-
what remarkable that it had not attained the summer dress, though it was then early in May.
I used to see the Cormorants sitting perched on the pinnacles of the rugged cliffs, frequently with
their wings and tails spread out as if to dry themselves in the sun ; and I generally observed that
they resorted to the same resting-places. The Cormorant swims extremely well, and dives even
better, trusting to its swiftness under water for a supply of food ; and when gorged it will retire
to some favourite resting-place on a rocky point, and sit quietly until it has digested its meal,
which, as a rule, is a very heavy one. When fishing it appears almost always to swim with its
head under water, and when diving glides quietly under the surface without making a heavy
plunge. It is extremely wary and vigilant, and, when fishing anywhere near the shore, always
keeps a bright look-out ; and at the least sign of danger it will gradually sink its body in the
water until all but the head and upper part of the neck is submerged. Its flight is direct and
tolerably swift ; but it rises from the water with some difficulty, striking the water with its wings
and feet for a short distance before it gets fairly on the wing. When passing from place to place
the Cormorants usually fly in strings at no great altitude above the water. They alight abruptly
both on the water and on land, and walk with difficulty and clumsily. The present species feeds
on fish of various kinds, both freshwater and sea-fish — such as herrings, sprats, and other fish of

159

9

not too large a size, trout, carp, bream, and especially eels, for which last fish it evinces a great
partiality. The Chinese have long used Cormorants for fishing, and have them in excellent
training; and in England they have also been used for the same purpose; and even now Mr. F. H.
Salvin, the well-known falconer, keeps trained Cormorants. Pennant relates that he had a cast
of Cormorants, one of which was presented to him by Mr. Wood, Master of the Cormorants to
Charles I. When taken out to fish the birds have a collar round their neck, which prevents
them swallowing the fish they catch ; and when they have caught a sufficient quantity the collar
is taken off' and they are allowed to fish for themselves.

A very good account of a Cormorant in a state of domestication is given by Dr. Saxby (B. of
Shetl. pp. 316-318) as follows: — "The Cormorant is very easily domesticated, and when treated
with kindness will become exceedingly docile, exhibiting a very high degree of intelligence, and
an amount of affection scarcely to be expected from a bird which in its wild state is remarkable
for its extreme shyness of man. Some years ago a very young male was taken from one of the
North Skerries and brought to Halligarth, where he soon became a most interesting pet. At
first he required careful feeding ; for it was some weeks before he became aware that opening his
bill was the necessary preliminary to every meal. He would appear eager for food, and, uttering
the usual peculiar cry, would strike at whatever was offered him, but with his bill closed ; and in
this manner he would have starved, but for human aid. Afterwards he caused but little trouble ;
but when the Ducks were fed he would rush boldly in among them, appropriate any thing in the
shape of fish or flesh that happened to suit his fancy ; but he never would eat salted food. Some-
times, also, when he saw a boy coming to the house with fish he would waylay him, and, if no
contributions were then offered, he would speedily settle the matter by helping himself. One
day, when food was scarce and he had been fasting for many hours, I happened to pass by
carrying a number of Starlings, one of which I tossed at him, but scarcely with the expectation
that it would be accepted. However, he caught it cleverly before it could reach the ground,
and the next instant it disappeared down his capacious throat. Another followed, and was
treated in the same way; then more, until no less than five had been thus disposed of. This
number seemed to satisfy him ; and, the whole neck being enormously distended, it was with
difficulty that he waddled away to his favourite corner of the coal-shed, where I left him sitting,
face to the wall, upon a lump of coal, the legs of the last Starling still projecting from the corner
of his mouth. After this a bird was always a favourite morsel, and he would follow me for a
long distance when I happened to be carrying a gun. Once 1 gave him, for a single meal, two
Buntings, a Twite, a Sparrow, two Snow-Buntings, and a Kinged Plover; and even then he
followed me for more. Birds, fish, and mice were always swallowed head foremost. During
the first two years he kept almost entirely to the ground, only occasionally sitting upon a stone
or low wall ; but afterwards the roof of the house was preferred, from which elevated position
he used suddenly to pounce down, either to rob a fish-basket or to scatter a company of feeding
Ducks. But this was merely as a diversion, not as a necessity ; for from the time of his first
taking up his position on the roof he also began regularly to procure his own meals, flying to
the voe for that purpose, and after remaining there for an hour or two, returning to his former
station by the chimney. He never showed any desire to escape, but, on the contrary, he became
more and more attached to his human friends. Strangers who attempted to handle him ran the

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10

risk of becoming acquainted with the sharpness of his mandibles, and of being scared by the
unearthly croaking which always accompanied the bite. Being one of his especial friends, I was
permitted to stroke and handle him with impunity, and he would even fly several hundred yards
to meet me when I called. The kitchen-fire was his great delight, and he would bask near it
for hours ; but at such times it was imprudent to leave either fish or flesh within his reach. Once
he carried off a newly skinned rabbit ; and at another time he attacked a living Duck, and even
succeeded in swallowing the head and part of the neck before a rescue could be effected. He
would sometimes extend his explorations beyond the kitchen, wandering through the passages as
calmly as if the house were his own, but always betraying himself by the loud flap, flap of his
great webbed feet upon the flags. For about the first year of his life the iris of the eye was of
a brownish colour ; then it became pale bluish green, and towards the end of the second twelve-
month bright emerald-green. During the third year he rapidly acquired his adult plumage ;
but just as this was approaching its perfection he was unfortunately killed by an old half-blind
dog, which in former days had been celebrated for its address in seizing and killing wounded
Cormorants."

The Cormorant breeds either in cliffs and almost inaccessible rocks or else in trees. When
placed on a rock the nest is usually constructed of sticks and seaweed, and when on trees it is a
tolerably lai*ge and stout structure of sticks and twigs lined with grass and weed. Mr. Benzon
informs me that in Denmark it usually builds on oak or ash trees, breeding in colonies so close
together that as many as forty to fifty nests have been counted on one large tree. Both male
and female assist in collecting the materials for the nest, as also in incubation ; and the eggs,
four in number, are deposited late in April or in May. The birds are by no means cleanly ; and
by the time the young are hatched and ready to leave the nest it is extremely offensive, being
plastered all round with dung. The eggs are rather elongated in form, bluish white in colonr,
and are closely incrusted with an irregular layer of a white chalky substance. Those in my
collection vary from 2^- by 1^- to 2^f by lf§ inch.

In a letter from my friend Dr. Kutter, written just ten years ago, he gives some interesting
notes respecting a visit he made to a breeding-place of the Cormorants in Posen, which I translate
as follows : — " In May I visited the breeding-place of the Cormorants and Herons ; and I can
assure you that it gave me the greatest pleasure, and I have seldom seen any thing that made
more impression on my mind. On a small island in the Klossowski lake (North Posen)
covered with lofty old fir and oak trees, nested closely packed together about 600 to 800 pairs
of these birds, the Cormorants being far the more numerous, though they have only settled there
during the last six years, and have by degrees pushed out the formerly so much more numerous
Herons. Many of the birds were still sitting ; the young of the others were hatched and sat on
the edge of the nest. The noise and tumult of the thousand voices was deafening, as all seemed
crying out at once, the old ones quarrelling, the young singing out for food, all hoarse and
unmusical ; and above all one could hear the rushing sound of the wings of the birds as they
came and went. Now and then I could hear the cry of a Peregrine (of which bird I found two
nests on the island), which was circling round high in the air, and the shrill whistle of a Kite
(Milvus migrans or regalis, which were both here in great numbers ; for I counted fourteen to
sixteen). Over the lake hovered, fishing, a host of Gulls, which, as usual, were pursuing their

161

n

prey in company. In short, the whole formed a most lively and interesting picture, which was
greatly enhanced by the beautiful scenery around the lake. The trees, in some of which were
four or five nests, were hard to climb ; and I had trouble to get good eggs, especially as the
Cormorants had mostly hatched out."

The young when fii'st hatched are bare, and livid in colour ; but after the lapse of a few days
they are covered with a close, soft, sooty greyish brown down, the bare face and beak being flesh-
coloured, the latter greyish towards the tip. This down plumage is retained until the immature
dress above described is donned.

The specimens figured are an adult male in full summer dress in the background, and an
adult in winter plumage in the foreground, both being the birds above described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens: —

E Mm. H. JE. Dresser.

a, rf , b, % . Orkney (Dunn). c,jun. Amoy, China, January 1867. d,jwv. Amoy, February 1867. e. Amoy,
November 24th, 1867 (R. Swinhoe) . f, 6 ad. Point Lepreaux, Bay of Fundy, May 1864 (H. E. D.) .

162

389

■zHmi:

J 'j.Kculenvans litV

Ha.oiia,Tb imp.

SHAG.
PHALACROCORAX CRACULUS.

163

PHALACROCORAX GKACULUS.

(SHAG.)

Phalacrocorax minor, Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 516 (1760).

Pelecanus graculus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 217 (1766).

Procellaria graculus (Linn.), Mull. Zool. Dan. Prodr. p. 18. no. 147 (1776).

Procellaria cristatus, Mull. op. cit. p. 18. no. 150 (1776).

Pelecanus cristatus, Fabricius, Faun. Grcenl. p. 90 (1780).

Carlo graculus (L.), Meyer, Taschenb. deutsch. Vogelk. ii. p. 900 (1810).

Phalacrocorax graculus (L.), Leach, Cat. M. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 34 (1816).

Hydrocorax cristatus (Miill.), Vieill. Nouv. Diet. viii. p. 89 (1817).

Carlo cristatus (Miill.), Temm. Man. d'Orn. ii. p. 900 (1820).

Halieus graculus (L.), Licht. Verz. Doubl. p. 86 (1823).

Phalacrocorax cristatus (Fabr.), Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xiii. part 1, p. 83 (1825).

Carlo desmaresti, Peyraudeau, Ann. des Sc. Nat. 1826, p. 460.

Carlo Irachyuros, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 822 (1831).

Carlo leucogaster, Cara, Orn. Sard. p. 199, spec. 261 (1842).

Graculus cristatus, G. E. Gray, Gen. of B. iii. p. 667 (1845).

Graculus linnceii, G. R. Gray, ut supra (1845).

Graculus desmarestii (Peyr.), G. E. Gray, ut supra (1845).

Phalacrocorax desmaresti (Peyr.), C. L, Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 360 (1855).

Scarlh, Gaelic ; Cormoran-largup, French ; Corvo marinho, Portuguese ; Marangone col
ciuffo, Italian ; Haulenscharle, Krdhenscharle, German ; de gekuifde Aalscholver, Dutch ;
Topskarv, Icelandic; Skarvur, Norwegian; Krdkskarf, Swedish.

Figures notaliles.

Temminck, PI. Col. 322 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 50, Suppl. taf. 32 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl.
taf. 280 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pis. 410, 411 ; id. B. of G. Brit. v. pi. 53 ; Schlegel, Vog.
Nederl. pis. 327, 328.

Ad. ptil. mst. virescenti-niger : dorsi et alse plumis pallidioribus et nigro marginatis : occipite cristato :
remigibus et rectricibus nigris : rostro nigro, ungue flavo-fusco : gula, et rostro ad basin flavidis
nigro notatis, regione oculari nuda nigra, : iride viridi : pedibus nigris.

Ad, ptil. Mem. haud cristatus, collo striis minutis albis notato.

Juv. pileo, collo postico et uropygio viridi-fuscis, plumis anguste albo-fusco apicatis : dorso viridi-fusco, plumis
marginibus anteapicalibus nigris et anguste fusco-albo marginatis : tectricibus alarum fuscis conspicue
albido terminatis : remigibus et rectricibus viridi-fuscis albido marginatis et apicatis : gula et corpore
subtus albis, gutture fusco-albido, bypocbondriis fuscis : rostro fusco, subtus fusco-incarnato, ad basin
et facie in parte nuda flavis : pedibus fuscis.

164

Adult in summer (Orkneys). General colour of plumage blackish green, with a silky lustre, the head and
neck being more richly glossed with green than the other parts; back, scapulars, and wing-coverts
lighter, the feathers narrowly margined with velvety black ; quills and tail black with a faint greenish
tinge; on the head, a little below the level of the eye, is a broad tuft of recurved oblong feathers
considerably over an inch in length; bill black, with the nail yellowish brown; basal portion and
bare part of the chin yellowish, marked with black ; angle of the mouth orange ; bare space round the
eye black, with a yellowish spot at the base of the bill ; iris rich green ; legs black. Total length about
26 inches, gape 3'6, wing 9 - 9, tail 57, tarsus 2 - 4.

Adult in winter. Differs from the adult in summer in having the head crestless and a few scattered minute
filiform pencil- tipped white plumelets on the neck.

Young (coast of Sicily). Crown and hind neck dark brown with a greenish tinge, the feathers tipped with
pale brown ; upper parts brown with dull greenish brown, the feathers margined with black, many
having an external brownish white margin ; rump almost uniform dull greenish ; wing-coverts brown
with broad dirty white margins; quills deep brown with a greenish tinge, narrowly margined and
tipped with brownish white; chin, upper throat, and underparts generally pure white, neck brownish
white; flanks brown; bill dusky brown above, brownish flesh below; bare skin at the base and round
the eye dusky yellow ; legs dusky brown.

Nestling. When first hatched the young are bare and livid blackish, but soon become covered with brownish
black down.

Compared with that of the Cormorant, the range of the present species is somewhat restricted ;
for, though common in Northern and Western Europe as well as in the Mediterranean, it is not
found further east than the Black Sea.

In Great Britain the Shag is more frequently seen in the north than the south, and is some-
what locally distributed, being less numerous than the Cormorant. In Guernsey, Mr. Cecil Smith
informs me, it is very abundant, especially in the breeding-season, occupying every available ledge
on all the cliffs ; and the same may be said of Alderney and Sark ; when he was there, in the first
week in June 1876, the young were hatched, and were standing on the rocks beside their mothers,
appearing nearly as large as they, though not able to fly. It occasionally visits some parts of
the south coasts of England, but is said to be wanting on the shores of Kent, Sussex, and on the
east coast of England up to Yorkshire ; and Mr. Cecil Smith informs me that on the west coast
he does not know of any instance of its occurrence off Somersetshire. On the Northumberland
and Durham coasts, however, according to Mr. Hancock, " the Shag is a resident. It breeds
rarely at the Fame Islands, where its eggs were taken in June, about the year 1820, by the late
Mr. John Laws and the late Mr. K. R. Wingate. George C. Atkinson, Esq., has also taken the
eggs of this species at the Fame Islands, and presented them some years ago, along with his
valuable collection of eggs, to the Newcastle Museum. Mr. James Sutton informs me, October 1 ,
1873, that the Shag nested this year on the Fame Islands."

In Scotland, Mr. Robert Gray writes (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 457), " though less numerous on
the western shores of the mainland than the Cormorant, the Shag is abundant in the Outer
Hebrides, where it is permanently resident, and to a great extent gregarious. It is found
breeding in great numbers in all the caves which intersect the precipitous coasts of Harris

165

and Barra, and also on the uninhabited rocks, such as the Haskeir group and other islands, lying
to the west of North Uist. Very large companies frequent the sounds which separate the
islands; and in these stations they are seen daily, at certain states of the tide, fishing in
congregations which in extent remind one of a dense colony of Guillemots. Late in the
afternoon they rise on wing in detachments, and betake themselves to the caves in which they
generally pass the night. One of these caves named Liuir, on the west side of Harris, is perhaps
the best-known throughout the Long Island. There cannot be less than two or three hundred
Green Cormorants in it during the breeding-season ; and at other times of the year it gives ample
shelter to the poor birds when the fury of the winter storms prevents a seaward flight. In the
Inner Hebrides this Cormorant is equally common, frequenting similar caves. Dr. Dewar found
a large breeding colony in the island of Rum ; the nests were chiefly on broken boulders not far
from the water's edge ; and the birds were so tame as to allow themselves to be seized with the
hand before quitting the nest. Nearer the mainland it is found in Skye, Mull, Iona, and Staffa,
as well as upon Islay, Jura, and Gigha; a few frequent Ailsa Craig; and I have observed con-
siderable numbers in the caves along the rocky shores of Ayrshire and Wigtonshire. It is
frequent at the Mull of Galloway and at Burrow Head, thence northward as far as Gailiestown.
1 have seen from forty to fifty in one day while driving between these two places."

In Ireland, Thompson writes (B. of Irel. iii. p. 250), " the Shag is resident, inhabiting all
quarters of the coast, but generally less numerous than the common species (Phalacrocorax carbo).
. . . Much the best account we have of this bird in any breeding-haunt on the coast of Ireland is
from Dr. J. D. Marshall, who informs us, in his published memoir, that about the 1st of July,
1834, 'Ave found this Cormorant (Phalacrocorax cristatus) in pairs, frequenting the numerous
caves with which the northern and western shores of Rathlin are indented. They formed their
nests on the high ledges of rock, almost touching the summit of the caves ; the nest was composed
of fuci of various kinds, matted and plastered together ; the eggs were of a bluish-green colour.
We sometimes, by good management, entered the caves ere the Cormorants had left, and at such
times we found them sitting, with the neck and head thrust over the ledge of the rock, looking
down on the boat as it made its way to the inner extremity of the cave. On firing our guns they
would drop into the water as if they had been shot, and, with great expertness, dive under the
boat, and make their way out to sea. This species seemed much more numerous than the
common Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo).' "

The Shag does not appear to have occurred in Greenland ; but it is said to be tolerably
common and resident in Iceland, as also in the Faeroes. It is found on the coasts of Norway
throughout the entire year. Mr. Collett says that it is sparingly met with off the Nedenees
coast, in Christiania Stift, becoming more numerous west of Lindesnses, and off Stavanger it is
common. It breeds all along the west coast of Norway, being most abundant within the Arctic
circle. According to Nilsson it is not met with on the Baltic coasts of Sweden ; nor does it ever
visit the coasts of Finland, except that portion of Finnish Lapland which skirts the Arctic Ocean.
It is not found in the Baltic Provinces or Poland ; and in North Germany it is of rare occurrence,
not having been met with on the Baltic coast. According to Naumann it has once been shot,
and several times seen, off the Elbe ; Brahts records it from Neuwied, and Altum as having been
obtained in Westphalia. It is only occasionally met with on the coasts of Denmark, and has

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been shot, Mr. Collin says, at Flensborg and Frederiksstad. After severe storms it is sometimes
seen off the Dutch and Belgian coasts, as also on the northern shores of France; but from
Cherbourg to Finisterre it is found breeding ; and it is said to be common on the Portuguese
coasts. Colonel Irby states that he found it numerous in the Straits of Gibraltar, and adds that
he found it breeding at the island of Peregil, under Apes' Hill, on the African coast. Mr. Howard
Saunders writes that he found it breeding on the island 6f Dragonera, and it is common through-
out the Mediterranean. Lord Lilford informs me, " it abounds on the south coast and islets
off Sardinia ; we found some young in the nests and many swimming, but unable to fly, at the
Isola Rossa and about Vacca. It is common also on the coast of Epirus, where I obtained spe-
cimens, in June 1875, not far from Gomenizza. We also found it breeding on the rocky islet of
Standia, opposite the town of Candia, on Paleocastrizza, in Crete. On the south coast of Cyprus
I often observed Shags, but did not obtain any specimens. I never found a crest in any specimen
in the Mediterranean. The Crested Green Shag was very common about the Lizard in July
1852; and I obtained specimens and eggs there in that month; all these birds had more or less
crest. In the Mediterranean, especially on the coast of Sardinia, I noticed that the Shag and
common Cormorant (Ph. carlo) breed apart, and do not seem to fish in company."

I am indebted to Lord Lilford for the loan of his series of Shags from the Mediterranean ;
and having carefully compared them with examples from the British Isles, I cannot find any
specific distinction. The only difference I see in the series before me is that none of adult
examples from the Mediterranean has the crest as in those from the British coast; but other-
wise, in coloration and measurements, they are indistinguishable. This being the only difference,
I cannot think that the Mediterranean bird can be looked on as specifically separable.

In Southern Germany the Shag is a very rare bird ; but Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown
state (Ibis, 1875, p. 431), on the authority of Hen* Buda Adam, that it has occurred in Transyl-
vania. Dr. Kruper states that it is resident in Greece and the Cyclades, and he met with it
breeding in the latter islands and in the northern Greek islands, where its eggs are deposited
very early in the season. Von Nordmann says that it is only occasionally met with in the spring
and autumn in the Black Sea. Lord Lilford observed it off the coasts of Asia Minor ; but Canon
Tristram did not meet with it in Palestine, nor did Von Heuglin ever come across it on the
coasts of North-east Africa. It is, however, resident in North-west Africa, and is found, Loche
says, on the Algerian lakes, especially those near the sea. Favier also states {fide Colonel Irby)
that it is rare near Tangier, but is found there throughout the whole year.

In South Africa it is replaced by a very closely allied species, Phalacrocorax ca_pensis
(Sparrm.), said to differ in having fourteen instead of twelve rectrices, in being larger in size, and
in not having a crest in any stage of plumage.

In general habits the Shag differs but little, if at all, from the Cormorant, except that it is
more seldom seen on fresh water. Like that species it is an expert diver, subsisting on small
fish, amongst which it creates great havoc. It is generally seen either seated on some ledge,
often in a very exposed position, or else on the water. It flies swiftly, and is very powerful on
the wing, but is not seen far from land, and appears to fish in shallower water than the Cor-
morant. It breeds on the rocks, either in crevices or else on ledges, usually in colonies, being
very gregarious in its habits. The nest is a clumsy, careless structure, composed of seaweeds,

167

heather, &c. ; and the eggs, three or four in number, are bluish white, covered with a chalky
substance, elongated in shape, and rather smaller than those of the Cormorant.

Respecting its habits in Great Britain I cannot do better than transcribe the following
excellent notes from Macgillivray's ' British Birds,' v. p. 396 : — " There is a large cave on the
west coast of Harris celebrated for the number of Scarts which reside in it, and so lofty that a
boat can enter to a considerable distance without having the masts taken down. I have several
times visited it for the purpose of shooting the birds in the breeding-season, when they had
numerous nests on its sides. When we appear off the mouth of the cave, we see a con-
siderable number of Scarts conspicuously perched on the little shelves and projections, their
dusky figures strongly relieved by the whitened surface of the rock. Some of them fly overhead
as we approach ; but more drop into the water like a stone. On looking down, we see them
rapidly wending their way under the boat, flying with outspread wings, and not at all in the
manner represented by some, who say that this bird propels itself under water entirely by the
feet and tail. Of this I am certain, having been an eye-witness of the fact. Glancing aloft, we
see many Black Guillemots in the clefts, and above them the eyrie of the White-tailed Sea-
Eagle ; but our business is with the Scarts, which, now alarmed, are seen writhing their long
necks as they gaze upon us. Presently a shot is fired — another ; the dead birds drop on the
water, the living plunge headlong into it ; many advance on wing, but, being frightened by the
upraised oars, dart into the water. Advancing a little, we find that many still remain on the
rocks ; and of these we shoot some more. Presently some of those which had escaped return and
perch ; and thus we continue shooting until we have obtained as many as we desire. After all
the uproar, several still remain standing near their nests, so loth are they to quit them.
Although most of the nests are beyond reach, some are accessible. We find them generally
bulky, but sometimes very scanty, formed of fuci, twigs, heath, and grass, rudely put together,
nearly flat, or with a shallow cavity, containing two, frequently three, sometimes four eggs, never
more. The eggs are generally soiled by the feet of the birds, like those of the Gannet and
Grebes. In some of the nests are young birds in various stages. At first they are bare all over,
and of a purplish-black colour. Presently, however, they are covered with brownish-black down,
soft, but not close, and leaving the head, part of the neck, and the abdomen bare. Then the
feathers gradually sprout ; the birds rapidly increase in size, and in seven or eight weeks are
fledged. They are at first fed with half-digested fish disgorged by their mother, and at length,
becoming very plump, are esteemed delicate food by the Hebridians. I have eaten a portion of
one, but did not relish it ; and the flesh of the adult bird is much worse.

"To one of these caves is a narrow passage from the land. I have often crept into it, and,
advancing stealthily, have seen eight or ten Scarts below, at the distance of a few yards, brooding-
over their eggs or young, or standing beside them. On the arrival of their mother, the young
open their bills wide, stretching up their necks with a wriggling kind of motion, and receive
their food from her mouth. The nest, as well as the rocks around, is covered w r ith white dung;
and a disagreeable stench, as of putrid fish, emanates from them. The Rock-Pigeons frequently,
and Starlings sometimes, roost and nestle in these caves. On my shouting, these birds instantly
flew off; but the Cormorants remained standing in a state of great anxiety, until I showed
myself, when they would take wing, leaving their young at my mercy. They soon returned,

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6

however, and, on my again hiding, forgot their alarm. Many little things are neglected on such
occasions, however keen the observer may be ; and I have now to regret that I can say nothing
with certainty as to the cries of either young or old.

"Although most of them repose in the caves and fissures all the year, many, after the
breeding-season, roost on the shelves of rocks. Sometimes during very severe storms in winter,
when the sea is so agitated as to prevent a bird from seeing into it, they remain at home all day ;
but this seldom happens, even on the most exposed parts of the coasts, as the creeks and little
bays present smoother water. It does not appear that this species often visits lakes or rivers.
Nor is it ever met with far out at sea, its favourite fishing-stations being the eddies of channels,
bays, and estuaries. Great numbers frequent particular low rocks or insular crags for the
purpose of resting at some period of the day, generally between ebb and high water. There
they preen themselves, spread out their wings in the sun or wind, and repose in a standing
posture, with contracted neck.

" In dry weather, I have often seen individuals of this species, while swimming, erect them-
selves in the water, and, spreading out their wings, remain in that posture for a long time. On
the rocks, and sometimes on low islands and sandbanks, it is common enough to see them with
all their broad funereal banners spread oat. Although not so shy as the Great Cormorants, they
seldom allow a boat to come within shot on such occasions ; and while engaged in fishing they
cannot often be obtained, on account of their vigilance and the extreme rapidity of their move-
ments. On being fired at, or otherwise alarmed, they always dive, and reappear at a distance.
They rise heavily from the water, striking it with their feet and wings to a considerable distance ;
and in alighting, on it or on the rocks, they come down abruptly. On land they move clumsily,
being incapable of walking effectively. Indeed the roosting-places of many of them do not
present a surface of a foot square ; and they never alight elsewhere, unless for the purpose of
resting. Toward evening, when their labours are finished, they may be seen wending their way
in silence over the sea, generally near the coast, and in strings to their roosting-places."

Mr. Benzon informs me that sometimes a disease rages amongst the Shags in the Fseroes,
and when attacked by it the birds go on land and die in large numbers. When suffering
under this disease, they can be easily caught with the hand. I may also add that Mr. Collett,
who informs me that the Shag, which breeds in large numbers in the north of Norway, in
company with Eiders, Kittiwakes, and other sea-birds, though seldom with the Cormorants,
usually deposits three, sometimes five or six, and occasionally as many as eight eggs. " On the
26th June 1872," he adds, " nests were found at the North Cape, some of which contained eggs,
and others half-fledged young. A similar disparity is observed in the broods, the young being of
different sizes in the same nest. The old birds keep their offspring gorged with fish."

The specimens figured are an adult male from Orkney and a young bird from the Mediter-
ranean, both of which are in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have, besides the series from the Mediterranean
collected by Lord Lilford, examined the following specimens :—

E Mus. H. E. Dresser,
a, 6,b,2. Orkneys {Dunn), c. Faroes, 1871 {Benzon). d,juv. Coast of Sicily {Doderlein).

390

AFRICAN CORMORANT
PHALACRACQRAX AFRICANUS

16<j

PHALACROCORAX AFRICANUS.

(AFRICAN CORMORANT.)

African, Shag, Lath. Synopsis, iii. pt. 2, p. 606 (1785).

Pelecanus africanus, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 577 (1788, ex Lath.).

Halieus pygmceus, Licht. Verz. Doubl. p. 86 (1823, nee Pall.).

Phalacrocorax africanus (Gm.), Audouin, Expl. somm. PI. Hist. Nat. de l'Egypte, p. 313

(1825).
Carlo africanus (Gm.), Lesson, Traite d'Orn. p. 604 (1831).
Carbo africanoides, Smith, Rep. Exped. Expl. Centr. Afr., App. p. 57(1836).
Carlo longicaudus, Swains. B. of W. Afr. ii. p. 255, pi. 31 (1837).
Halieus africanus (Gm.), Sund. Phys. Sallsk. Tidsk. i. p. 54 (1838).
Graculus africanus (Gm.), Gray, Gen. of B. iii. p. 667 (1849).
Phalacrocorax longicaudus (Sw.), Licht. Nomencl. Av. p. 102 (1854).
Haliwus africanus (Gm.), Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 178 (1857).
Graculus coronatus, Wahlb. J. fur Orn. 1857, p. 4.
Microcarbo africanus (Gm.), G. R. Gray, Hand-1. of B. iii. p. 129 (1871).

FiguroB notabiles.
Mus. Carls, pi. 61 ; Savigny, Descr. de l'Egypte, pi. 8. fig. 2.

Ad. capite, collo, dorso centraliter, uropygio, cauda, et corpore subtus nigerrimis viridi nitentibus, fronte
cristata : dorsi lateribus, scapularibus et tectricibus alarum griseis nigro apicatis, sed marginibus
alarum nitide nigris : remigibus nigris griseo lavatis : rostro flavido, supra brunneo notato : iride
coccinea : pedibus nigris.

Jim. pileo, capitis et colli lateribus et collo postico nigro-fuscis, pallide brunneo mixtis : dorso centraliter
nigro pallide brunneo marginato, uropygio nitide nigro : cauda, et alis ut in adulto picturatis sed his
sordidioribus, scapularibus et tectricibus alarum sordide fusco-cinereis nigro apicati3 : mento et gula
albis, gutture albo pallide brunneo notato : corpore reliquo subtus albo, prater hypochondria et sub-
caudales intense nigra.

Adult in full plumage (Egypt, 2nd May). Head, neck, centre of the back, rump, tail, and entire underparts
glossy black with bottle-green reflections ; forehead intermixed with white and furnished with a short
crest; sides of the back, scapulars and wing-coverts (except along the ridge of the wing, which is
coloured like the back) grey and blackish grey tipped broadly with black ; quills black, washed with
grey ; bill yellow, the ridge of the upper mandible brown ; iris carmine-red ; legs black. Total length
about 17 inches, culmen 1*5, gape 2"0, wing 7 - 5, tail 6 - 0, tarsus 1*5.

Young (Egypt, 5th June). Crown, sides of the head and neck and hind neck dark blackish brown inter-
mixed with light brown ; fore part and centre of the back black edged with light brown ; rump glossy
black ; wings and tail as in the adult, but duller, the scapulars and wing-coverts being dull brownish

2k

170

ash tipped with black ; chin and upper throat pure white ; lower throat white marked with light brown,
rest of the underparts pure white, except the flanks and under tail-coverts, which are glossy black.

Obs. The present species appears to pass through similar changes of plumage as the Pygmy Cormorant;
but in immature dress it may always be distinguished from that species by the black-tipped wing-
coverts and scapulars. A second specimen, in Mr. Gurney's collection, is in an interesting stage of
transition from the young to the old plumage, the underparts being mottled black and white, the head
almost as in the young bird, and on the upper parts of the body it has assumed the full plumage.
There does not appear to be any difference in size or coloration between the sexes.

This southern representative of our Pygmy Cormorant only just occurs within the limits of the
Western Palaearctic Region, being met with towards the mouth of the Nile; but it is generally
distributed in suitable localities throughout Africa as far south as the Cape colony. It appears .
to be far commoner in Egypt than Phalacrocorax pygmceus, and judging from Captain Shelley's
description (B. of Egypt, p. 296), he appears to have mistaken the present species for the Pygmy
Cormorant ; but both species occur at the Fayoom, where he obtained his specimens. Von
Heuglin states (Orn. N.O.-Afr. p. 1495) that it is very common on the White and Blue Nile and
their tributaries northward to about 15° N. lat., and on all the lakes and streams of Abyssinia
southward to the Galla country, and is occasionally met with at above 8000 feet altitude ; and he
adds that he believes it occurs in the delta of the Nile. Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., says that he
was informed by M. Filliponi that the present species or else Ph. pygmceus used formerly to be
common at Damietta, and he himself found it at Lake Fayoom, where, he says,, it is one of the
commonest birds. I do not find it recorded from Algeria or Morocco ; but it has been met with
in Senegambia, on the Gold Coast, and Benguela. Mr. E. B. Sharpe says that Mr. Ussher sent
a specimen from the Volta ; and it was met with in Damara Land by Mr. Andersson, who writes
(B. of Damara L. p. 370) as follows: — "This Cormorant occurs on Lake Ngami and its water-
sheds ; but I have never met with it, except on inland waters. It feeds on fish, and is a most
expert diver. Its flight is strong and rapid ; and it perches on trees both during the day and at
night. This species feeds chiefly at night ; as the sun declines it is seen in flocks flying to its
fishing-grounds. During the day it remains in great measure stationary, either lazily sunning
itself on some branch overhanging the water, or on a bunch of reeds ; or it may be seen standing
erect on a sandbank, with outstretched wings. When in the water, it has the habit of sub-
merging its body to such an extent as to leave little more than the neck exposed." Mr. E. L.
Layard, who also records it as found on Lake Ngami, adds (B. of S. Afr. p. 381) that one was
sent from Colesberg by Mr. Arnot. Mr. Ayres met with it in Natal, and says that it frequents
the freshwater lagoons on the coast ; and it is also recorded from the Zambesi, Mozambique, and
Madagascar. Both Dr. Kirk and Mr. Ayres give some few details respecting its habits. The
former, writing respecting its occurrence on the Zambesi, says (Ibis, 1864, p. 338) that he found
it " common on all rivers, lakes, and lagoons. Its breeding-places are the retired islets among
the rapids, commonly unapproachable. A second species, much larger and with a white neck,
occurs rarely on the Lower Zambesi, but is common among the rapids of the Shire, where it
breeds, and on Lake Nyassa. In the shallow lake through which the Shire flows after leaviug
the Nyassa, the natives drive piles in the bottom, at a distance from shore, and rising a foot

171

above the surface. An elastic piece of wood, with a noose attached, is placed on the main pile,
and serves to trap the Cormorants and Darters, which come to rest on them." Mr. Ayres says
(Ibis, 1862, p. 154) that the " flight of this bird is rapid and strong. When in the water it swims
extremely low, scarcely any part of its back being then visible. Both in the air and on the water
it much resembles the Anhinga (Plohis levaillantii) in appearance. It is a very superior diver,
and feeds entirely on fish ; if disturbed, instead of diving, it generally seeks safety on the wing.
It is solitary in its habits, and, like the Anhinga, is particularly fond of sunning itself with out-
stretched wings on some clump of rushes." Von Heuglin (I. c.) says that he doubts if it ever
migrates in North-east Africa, where it is very generally found in larger and smaller companies
in the large morasses, lakes, half-dried-up streams, and even ponds. It does not swim much, but
prefers to sit in wait for its prey on a branch or reed, or on a rock. Nor does it feed solely on
fish, as he has found frogs and even grasshoppers in its stomach. It is not so shy as, but more
active than its congeners. Its flight is swift and direct, somewhat resembling that of a Duck ;
and when surprised it seldom dives, but takes flight at once. He further remarks that he has on
several occasions seen it consorting with Ducks and Anhingas.

Some interesting notes respecting the present species have lately been published by Mr. J. H.
Gurney, jun. (Rambl. of a Naturalist, p. 240), which I transcribe as follows : — " Some of these
birds we shot were in immature or perhaps still in winter plumage, and had all the underparts,
except the vent, white ; others were curiously mottled black and white ; and others again were in
full breeding-plumage. Some of the latter had the flesh on the forehead raised in a very singular
manner ; but on looking at my skins I see that it has shrunk down very much. These birds had
also crests ; but the strangest thing about them is a sharp bone, half an inch long, at the back of
the head, which can be felt projecting under the skin. It was great sport shooting them in the
evening, which may easily be clone as they come flying down the Bar-el-Wady canal, which
unites the Bar-Joseph to the lake (Fayoom). . Here one of us would hide behind the stunted
bushes ; and as they passed with great regularity we knew exactly what time to look out for them.
It is necessary to see them a long way off, as they are rather shy, and to keep well hidden ; but
sometimes the specks which we took to be Cormorants turned out to be only Buff-backs, though
generally they flew in more straggling flocks. Now and again a single bird would come stealing
low over the water, or a pair would pass us out of range. They would probably be on their way
to a bed of tamarisks, a mile out in the lake, where they intended nesting with the Buff-backed
Herons. We saw a few sitting upon nests ; but they had evidently not begun to lay, and, indeed,
they may only have been using empty nests as a convenient perching-place. They took up a
position on higher boughs than the Buff-backs ; and often seven or eight were perched on the top
of the same tamarisk. All the nests there resembled each other, and were built of the same
materials; so that I judged they were all those of Buff-backs or belonged to some species of
Heron. I saw a Buff-back settle upon one, on which a moment before a Cormorant had been.
They are such expert divers that of the first six shot by my friend only one was bagged. When
not fat they are very easy to skin."

In mode of nidification the present species is said to agree closely with Phalacrocorax
pygmwus ; and its eggs doubtless resemble those of that species ; but I have been unable to obtain
any for examination.

2x2

172

The specimens figured are an adult bird, in full plumage, in my own collection, for which I
am indebted to Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun. (who most generously gave me the only fully adult spe-
cimen he possessed), and a young bird. The latter is from the collection of Mr. Gurney ; and both
are the examples above described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens :—

E Mus. H. E. Dresser,
a, 6 nd. Fayoom, Egypt, May 2nd, 1875 (/. H. Gurney, jun,.).

E Mus. J. H. Gurney, jun.
a, J juv. Fayoom, June 5th. b, <3 jun. June 7th, 1875 (./. H. G. x jun.},

391

." jJCeoleioajis Hfli.

MkN.Hanhart

imp.

PIGMY CORMORANT.

PHALACROCORAX PYGM/EUS.

173

PHALACROCORAX PYGMJIUS.

(PYGMY CORMORANT.)

Pelecanus pygmceus, Pall. Reise, ii. p. 712, Anhang (1773).

Phalacrocorax pygmceus, Pall. Zool. Rosso-As. ii. p. 300 (1811).

Carlo pygmceus (Pall.), Temm. Man. d'Orn. p. 591 (1815).

Hydrocorax pygmceus (Pall.), Vieill. Nouv. Diet. viii. p. 88 (1817).

Hydrocorax niger, Vieill. torn. cit. p. 8S (1817).

Carlo javanicus, Horsf. Trans. Linn. Soc. xiii. p. 197 (1822).

Carlo melanognathus, Brandt, Bull. Ac. Sc. St.-Petersb. iii. p. 57 (1838).

Halieus pygmceus (Pall.), J. F. Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. xi. p. 112 (1842).

Gracuhts pygmceus (Pall.), G. R. Gray, Gen. of B. iii. p. 667(1849).

Carlo (Phalacrocorax) niepcii, Malh. Faun. Orn. Alg. p. 38 (1855).

Microcarbo pygmceus (Pall.), Bp. Cat. Parzud. p. 10 (1856).

Haliceus melanognathus (Brandt), Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 179 (1857).

Haliceus pygmceus (Pall.), Bp. ut supra (1857).

"Haliceus algeriensis, Reich." Bp. ut supra (1857).

Haliceus javanicus (Horsf.), Bp. ut supra (1857).

Haliceus niger (Vieill.), Bp. ut supra (1857).

Cormoran pygmee, French; Marangone minore, Italian; Zwerg-Scharle, German.

Figurce notaliles.
Pall. op. cit. ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl, taf. 281 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 409.

Ad. pileo, nucha, collo postico et colli lateribus rufescenti-brunneis, fronte saturatiore et viridi-nigro lavata :
dorso centraliter, scapularibus, tectricibus alarum et secimdariis intimis nigro-griseis, nigro marginatis :
corpore reliquo supra, gula centraliter et corpore subtiis nitide nigris vix viridi nitentibus et albo
guttatis : rostro nigro : hide fusca : pedibus nigris.

Juv. pileo, nucha et collo postico sordide brunneis vix rufescenti tiactis : corpore supra griseo-nigricante,
plumis centraliter pallidioribus et brunneo marginatis : uropygio nigro vix viridi tincto : Cauda et
alis ut in adulto sed sordidioribus : mento albo : gula, gutture et pectore brunneis, plumis albido
apicatis, corpore reliquo subtiis albido et pallide brunneo immixto, hypochondriis et subcaudalibus
nigris : rostro flavido : hide pallide brunnea : pedibus nigricantibus.

Adult in spring plumage (Hungary). Crown, nape, and hind neck, including the sides of the neck, glossy
reddish brown, the forehead much darker, and tinged with greenish black ; centre of the back,
scapulars, wing-coverts, and inner secondaries blackish grey, margined round the feather with glossy
black ; wings and tail black ; fore part of the throat from about the centre downwards, the entire
underparts, and the rest of the upper parts not above described glossy black with a bottle-green tinge,
marked with pure white spots, these spots being composed of peculiar feathers consisting of a fine bare

174

shaft tipped with a white tuft; bill black; iris brown; legs black. Total length about 21 inches,
culmen l - 35, wing 8"0, tail 6 - 5, tarsus l - 3.

Female. Resembles the male, but is rather smaller in size, less rich in coloration, and is less profusely
marked with the peculiar white spots.

Young (Butrinto, October). Crown, nape, and hind neck dull brown with a rufous tinge; upper parts
generally blackish grey with a faint gloss, darker towards the margins of the feathers, which are
narrowly edged with light brown ; rump blackish with a faint greenish gloss ; tail as in the adult, but
duller ; chin white ; throat and breast brown, the feathers tipped with dull white ; rest of the under-
pays dull white intermixed with light brown, except the lower flanks and under tail-coverts, which are
black ; bill yellowish ; iris lighter than in the adult ; legs blackish.

Young in down {fide Naumann). Covered with short, close, sooty down; bill blue with white tip; edge of
gape and throat flesh-coloured ; feet flesh-coloured, except on the outer portion, where they are blue.

Obs. According to Naumann it has a summer plumage which differs essentially from the above-described
spring dress. In this plumage the upper throat is white, the brown on the neck extends onto the
breast, and the peculiar white-tufted feathers which form the spots so conspicuous in the spring
plumage are wanting. This spring plumage, as I have called it, however, is (like the rich plumage of
some of the Ducks) worn in the winter, and retained until the female is incubating, when it is exchanged
for the true summer plumage, which is only worn for a short time.

The present species, the smallest of our European Cormorants, inhabits Southern, and more
especially South-eastern Europe, North Africa, and Southern Asia, as far as Java and Borneo.
It has not been met with in Northern Europe ; and though Herr Johann von Fischer speaks of
it (J. f. O. 1872, p. 390) as being extremely scarce in the St.-Petersburg district, I cannot help
thinking that this gentleman may have been mistaken. Mr. A. von Homeyer writes (J. f. O.
1870, p. 231) that one was shot some years ago near Gorlitz, on the Leopoldshainer Lake, and is
in the Museum at Gorlitz ; but I find no record of its occurrence in other portions of Central or
Northern Europe, and it does not inhabit France, Portugal, or Spain. In Italy, however, it is
recorded by Salvadori as of very rare and accidental occurrence, having been observed in Venetia,
Tuscany, and Naples; and he obtained one of two individuals shot on the Tenna on the 28th
October, 1866. Three specimens have been obtained in Sardinia; but there is no actual record
of its occurrence in Sicily, though it might be expected to visit that island. In Southern
Germany it becomes more common. Naumann says that it has occurred once or twice on the
Neusiedler lake ; and in Hungary it is very generally to be met with in suitable localities. In
Transylvania, Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown write (Ibis, 1875, p. 431), it is "not very rare.
It generally appears in large flocks, and has been met with on the Alt and Strell. On the latter
two young birds were killed in December at Brettye."

When travelling down the Danube I frequently observed this little Cormorant, and was told
that it breeds not unfrequently on the islands in that river. From Belgrade downwards it
appears to be by no means a rare species. I passed through the countries skirting the Danube,
too early, however, to obtain the eggs of this bird myself, and have never had an opportunity of
seeing its nest. It is a cold-weather visitant to Greece. Dr. Kriiper says that during the

175

winter it is tolerably common amongst the islands in the lagoons of Missolonghi, but disappears
in April. He does not know if it ever remains to breed there. It winters in the Cyclades,
and is common in Macedonia at that season of the year. Colonel Drummond-Hay speaks of it
as common during the cold season at Butrinto, and somewhat rare in Cephalonia, but not found
at Corfu ; but Lord Lilford states (Ibis, 1860, p. 355), it is " very abundant in winter in Epirus ;
appears to have no particular preference for salt water to fresh, as it is often to be found in
ditches and flooded meadows far from the sea. I saw this species in Albania in August 1857."
It is found in suitable localities in Southern Russia, and nests, Mr. Jacovleff says, in the delta of
the Volga, about fifty miles from Astrachan. Mr. Danford met with it in the marshes near the
Meander, and in Adalia, in Asia Minor, where it was common ; and Canon Tristram records it
from Palestine, where he met with it on the Leontes and other streams flowing into the Medi-
terranean. He did not observe it in the Jordan valley, where, however, he adds, it might easily
have escaped his notice. In North-east Africa the present species is less numerous than the
African Cormorant. Von Heuglin says that during the winter it is tolerably common in the
lagoons of Lower Egypt, and lives in communities. He did not observe it on the Nile, but
thinks it not improbable that it breeds in the delta. Captain Shelley writes (B. of Egypt,
p. 295) as follows : — " The only locality in which I found this bird was the Fayoom, where it
was not uncommon on the desert side of the great lake of Birket el Korn, and I shot two speci-
mens. It is a far more active bird than the common Cormorant, and much more shy, but very
similar in its habits ; for as I paddled among the reeds I frequently saw it sitting upright on the
halfsunken bushes, or diving actively in pursuit of fish. It appears to be a sociable species ; for
I generally noticed it in pairs or small flocks, possibly family parties; but it never flew in
company with other birds." I am also indebted to Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., for the following
note : — " The Little Cormorant is probably far rarer than the long-tailed African Cormorant at
the Faioom, as I only shot one, a male, on the 1st of June. We at once noticed it as something
different, from its entirely black bill and pouch, dark brown eye, and brown head. All the long-
tailed African ones which we shot, amounting to fifteen in number, had red or reddish eyes and
yellow bills."

The present species is also found in Algeria, where, according to Loche, it is common, and
breeds on Lake Fezzara. Loche states that there are two species in Algeria, one of which he
calls Haliceus algeriensis ; but Professor Schlegel, who has compared examples from Algeria,
states that they are identical with P. pygmoeus.

To the eastward the present species has a tolerably wide range. Pallas and Eichwald both
record it from the Caspian. In India, Dr. Jerdon writes, it is exceedingly common in every part.
I have examined specimens from India, in the British Museum, and cannot find any specific
distinction between them and examples from Europe; and Professor Schlegel states that
examples from Java and Borneo, where the present species is very common, are similar to the
Indian bird.

I have only seen the present species on one or two occasions (when on the Danube), and have
had but scanty opportunities of studying its habits. I am therefore glad to avail myself of the
excellent notes communicated by the Baron von Loebenstein to Naumann, and published by him
in his ' Naturgeschichte der Vogel Deutschlands,' xi. pp. 128-135. From these I translate the

176

following particulars respecting the habits of Phalacrocorax pygmceus : — When seated, this bird
sits with its body erect, the tail somewhat drooped, and the neck drawn into an S-shape, and much
shortened. When any thing attracts its attention it stretches the neck somewhat, but never straight
out. The tuft on the forehead is then laid flat, whereas when the bird is sitting quietly or
swimming it carries it erect. Its favourite perch is, curiously enough, on a reed growing straight
out of the water, which it clutches with its feet close above the water, holding its body erect,
the tail being pressed against the stem : and it is rather strange that it remains so long in this
odd position; for the upper foot is much drawn in, and the lower one greatly stretched out.
In a tree or bush it perches indifferently on a horizontal, vertical, or erect bough, and appears
not to care if it is no thicker than a reed or is stouter than a man's thumb. It has generally
some favourite perch, where it may almost always be seen, usually on the sunny side of a forest
of reeds, or in an open place amongst the reeds ; and generally several frequent the same place.
It climbs about amongst the aquatic vegetation with ease ; but on the ground it appears to
be almost helpless. It swims, however, excellently, and is thoroughly at home in the water,
both on the surface and underneath ; for it dives with the greatest ease. When swimming, but
little of the body is exposed to view, and the neck is curved into an S-shape; and when it feels
itself insecure it exposes nothing but its head and the upper part of its neck, and frequently
dives, swimming some distance under the water. On the wing it is swift, and propels itself with
quick flaps of the wings, every now and again gliding with outstretched motionless wings for
some distance, and except for this it not a little resembles the Mallard (Anas boschas) in its
flight.

It is friendly towards others of its own species, and peaceable towards other birds, and
therefore lives and breeds in company with other species which frequent the localities it inhabits.
Though several pairs and often many live together, yet when they leave the nesting-place they
do so singly or in pairs, and not several together. Usually the female leaves first, and the male
follows her. It is a shy and very suspicious bird; and, except at its nesting-place, it is very
difficult to approach it within range. Near its nest, however, one can get within fifteen or
twenty yards of it — though, if a few shots are fired, they become shy, unless they have young,
when love for their offspring makes them brave every danger, and compels them to return to
their nests.

It feeds entirely on small fishes, and will capture them up to three, four, or five inches in
length. It takes them when diving under the surface of the water, and will sometimes remain
several minutes underneath, appearing not unfrequently to dive down to the bottom. It breeds
in marshy localities in companies ; and often hundreds of individuals nest in company together
with Egrets, Spoonbills, and Ibises, in localities where the nests cannot be reached but with the
greatest difficulty, and only by wading almost up to one's neck in mud and water ; usually the
nest is built in willow bushes. " In these nest-covered bushes," writes Baron von Loebenstein,
" the Little Cormorant places its nest in the highest places, usually above seven or eight feet
from the surface, up to about ten feet. The nest resembles those of the Egrets and Ibises ; and
it. is possible that it takes possession of deserted nests of these birds, as the Cormorant does of
those of the Heron. The nest may not inaptly be compared to that of the Ring-Dove, being,
like that, built of dry sticks without any other materials; but it is stouter, and the centre is

177

depressed into a shallow cup. It may be distinguished from the nests of the Egret and Ibis
at some distance by being covered with the white droppings of its possessor. Late in May the
nest contains five or more, seldom six eggs; therefore it lays more than any of the other
European species."

Both male and female incubate in turn, and are exceedingly careful. When not sitting on
the eggs they perch close to the nest, only leaving when compelled to search for food, and when
disturbed they fly round at no great distance from the nest ; and when the young are hatched
they are even more solicitous for their progeny.

Eggs of the present species in my collection resemble those of the Shag, but are much less
in size, varying from Iff by -£-$ to Iff by -^ inch ; and the surface of the shell is somewhat
smoother.

The specimens figured are an adult male in full breeding-dress, and an immature bird in
winter plumage, both from Southern Europe.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser,
a, ad. Hungary, spring of 1872. b, <$ , c, d, Qjuv. Butrinto, Albania, October 1871 (Hanbury Barclay).

E Mus. C. G. Danford.
a,s,b,2. Adalia, December 22nd, 1874 (C. G. D.).

E Mus. Brit. Beg.
a. Algiers, b, ad., c,juv. Ghelma. d. Behar, India [Hodgson). e,f. India.

E Mus. J. H. Gumey, jun.
a, cj, ad. Fayoom, Egypt, June 1875 (/. H. G.,jun.).

178

179

Genus SULA.

Sula, Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 497 (1760).

Pelecanus apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 217 (1766).

Dysporus apud Illiger, Prodromus, p. 279 (1811).

Moris apud Leach, Syst. Cat. M. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 35 (1816).

Morus apud Vieillot, Nouv. Diet. xii. p. 39 (1817).

This genus, of which only a single species is found in the Western Palsearctic Region, is repre-
sented in the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian, Nearctic, and Neotropical Regions.
The species belonging to it are essentially sea-birds, frequenting salt water and feeding on fish,
which they obtain by plunging from a height into the water. They fly at a moderate height,
steadily and rather swiftly. They alight heavily, stand in an inclined position, walk very
awkwardly, and have a very harsh cry. They breed in colonies on rocks and islands, con-
structing a bulky nest of grasses, tuif, and weeds, and lay a single, elongated, chalky-surfaced,
white egg.

Sula bassana, the type of the genus, has the bill longer than the head, straight, elongated,
conical, moderately compressed ; upper mandible with the ridge broad, separated from the sides
by grooves, the sides being slightly convex, with a slender jointed additional piece beneath the
eye, the edges sharp, irregularly jagged; tip acute, slightly decurved; the small gular sac is
partially bare ; nostrils obliterated in the adult, open in the young ; wings long, narrow,
pointed, the first quill longest ; tail long, wedge-shaped ; tarsus very short, sharp behind, scaly ;
toes united by a membrane, the middle toe longest ; claws arched, moderate in size, that on the
middle toe pectinate.

In the article on Sula bassana, owing to a slip of the pen, the young female is described in
the English description as being an adult female ; but the Latin diagnosis is correct. I take
this opportunity of pointing out the error; for the adult female resembles the adult male in
plumage, and is not, as it would there appear to be, spotted with white on a dark ground.

127

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SULA BASSANA.

(GANNET.)

Sula major, Briss. Orn. vi. p. 497 (1760).

Sula bassana, Briss. torn. cit. p. 503, pi. xliv. (1760).

Pelecanus bassanus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 217 (1766).

Le grand Fou, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. viii. p. 372 (1781).

Le Fou tachete, Buff. torn. cit. p. 376 (1781).

Le Fou de Hassan, Buff. torn. cit. p. 375 (1781).

Pelecanus punctatus, Sparrm. Mus. Carls, tab. 10 (1786).

Pelecanus maculatus, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 579 (1788, ex Buff).

Sula alba, Meyer, Taschenb. deutsch. Vogelk. ii. p. 582 (1810).

Bysporus, Illig. {Pelecanus bassanus, Linn.) Prodr. p. 279 (1811).

Moris bassana (L.), Leach, Syst. Cat. M. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 35 (1816).

Morus bassanus (L.), Vieill. Nouv. Diet. xii. p. 39 (1817).

Sula major, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 812 (1831).

Sula americana, Bp. Comp. List, p. 60 (1838).

Bysporus bassanus (L.), J. F. Naumann, Naturg. Vog. Deutscbl. xi. p. 14 (1842).

Le Foib intermediaire, Lefevre, Naumannia, 1851, part 4, p. 38.

Sula lefevri, Baldamus, Naumannia, 1851, part 4, p. 38, footnote.

Solan Goose, Gannet, English; Sulaire, Gaelic; Fou de Bassan, French; Ganso-patola,
Portuguese ; Alcatraz, Spanish ; Bou-grana, Moorish ; Bass-TUpel, weisser Tolpel, German ;
de Jan van Gent, Dutch ; Hav-Sule, Tossefugl, Danish ; Sula, Fseroese ; Kuksuk, Green-
landic ; Sula, Hafsula, Icelandic ; Sule, Norwegian ; Hafs Sula, Sillebas, Swedish.

Figurce notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PL Enl. 278, 986 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 51b, Suppl. taf. 34; Naumann, Vog.
Deutschl. taf. 278; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 55. figs. 4, 5; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 412;
id. B. of G. Brit. v. pi. 54 ; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pis. 322, 323 ; Koux, Orn. Pro v. pi. 343 ;
Audub. B. of Am. p. 326.

d ad. albus, capite et collo rufescente isabellino tinctis, remigibus nigris^ Cauda, cuneata : rostro pallide livido-
cseruleo, regione oculari nuda nigricante : iride flava : pedibus virescentibus.

Juv. capite, collo et corpore supra fumoso-nigricanti-fuscis albo guttatis, remigibus et rectricibus nigro-fuscis :
corpore subtiis albido, fumoso fusco notato : rostro livido-fusco.

Adult Male (Bass Rock) . Entire plumage pure wbite, except that the head and neck are tinged with warm
cream-colour and the quills are black ; tail cuneate ; bill pale livid ; blue space round the eye blackish ;

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iris yellow ; legs greenish ; webs brown. Total length about 30 inches, culmen 4"8, wing 18"8, tail 8 - 3,
tarsus 2 - 7.

Adult Female (Bass Rock). Upper parts sooty blackish-brown, closely spotted with white, the spots on the
rump larger, and the coverts next to the tail nearly all white ; quills and tail blackish brown ; head and
neck like the back ; underparts below the neck white, closely marked with sooty brown spots ; bill dark
horn-brown.

Young in down (Bass Rock). Covered with close down like short Swan's down, except on the face, which is
blackish.

Obs. This bird is said to take three years to attain its full plumage. I am indebted to Mr. Small, of
Edinburgh, for a series of five specimens showing the different stages through which it passes. The
first is the young bird in down ; the second the young above described ; the third resembles no. 2, but
has fewer white spots on the upper parts, the face and upper throat are nearly white, and the bill is
paler ; no. 4 resembles the adult, except that on the back there are patches of blackish brown, and the
tail is blackish brown ; and no. 5 is the adult bird above described.

This, the only species of the genus Sula which is found in Europe, is an inhabitant of Northern
Europe and North America, ranging south, though only as a straggler, as far even as the coasts
of Africa. With us in Great Britain it is tolerably common on many parts of our coasts, and
breeds in several localities, notably on the Bass Rock, Ailsa Craig, and St. Kilda. In the south
of England it occurs not merely as a straggler, but as a regular autumn and winter visitant, and
it is said to be tolerably numerous on the South Devonshire coasts. Mr. Cecil Smith says that
it remains all the winter off the Channel Islands, but never breeds there, as it does on Luudy
Island, off the North-Devon coast. The breeding-stations in Great Britain which are at present
tenanted are as follows : — Lundy Island, off the coast of Devon ; the Skellig Islands, on the coast
of Kerry; St. Kilda; the Stack of Suliskerry; Ailsa Craig, at the mouth of the Firth of Clyde;
and the Bass Rock, in the Firth of Forth.

In the Humber district it is found off the coast, and stragglers are occasionally driven far
inland. Sometimes large numbers are to be seen off Flamborough Head and elsewhere along
the coast in the autumn. Mr. Robert Gray says (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 458) that it is an abundant
species over the whole coast-line of the west of Scotland during the summer months. Tbey
usually make their appearance on the Ayrshire coast in February, and leave in October ; but on
the east coast some hundreds have been known to remain all the winter in the vicinity of the
Bass Rock for three or four years in succession. It is said to winter even off the Orkneys and
Shetland ; and Dr. Saxby writes (B. of Shetl. p. 322) : — " It is often said that the Gannet
habitually breeds in the Shetlands ; but I very much question the accuracy of the assertion,
even though I have repeatedly seen the birds in the breeding-season upon the North Stack,
upon which rock, as also upon the Outstack, they are thought by many fishermen to nest."

In Ireland it may be seen on most parts of the coast in summer and autumn ; and Thompson
asserts that it breeds on one of the Skellig Islands.

The Gannet is occasionally, though rarely, found in Greenland, and only as an accidental
straggler; but Professor Newton says that it is very abundant in many localities in Iceland, and

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has several breeding-places on islands, among which Grimsey, the Keykjanes Fuglasker, and
some of the Vestmanneyjar are chief. According to Faber it remains there all the winter. It
breeds numerously in the Faeroes, the breeding-places being confined to the most western island
of the group, Myggenaes, where they nest on Pujgarsdrengur and Fleatidrengur, two isolated
stacks. It is found off the Norwegian coast ; and, according to Mr. Robert Collett, it occurs
during the herring fishery in winter and spring off the outer islands from Christiansand to
Nordland, and in some places, especially on the fishing-grounds from Jsederen to Stat, in
considerable numbers. A few remain over summer, though not to breed, on the west coast,
and visit almost every autumn and winter the tract between Lindesnses, eastward to the Swedish
frontier. North of the Arctic circle it is rarer, but has been shot on Lofoten, and on both sides
of the North Cape. In Southern Norway it is usually seen only after severe storms; and only
three are known to have been captured in the Christiania fiord ; but it has even been obtained
on fresh water, as on the Store Leesjo, in Smaalehnene. Nilsson states that it is rare in
Sweden, being only a straggler to the southern coasts. It is said to occur off Bohuslan from
July to March, but only visits the Baltic as a rare straggler. I do not find any record of its
occurrence on the Swedish or Finnish coasts of that sea ; but Brehm mentions one instance of
a specimen having been obtained in Mark Brandenburg ; and Dr. Schalow states (J. f. O. 1870,
p. 6) that one old male in full plumage was procured at Gross Schonebeck, near Joachimsthal,
and is now preserved at Berlin. It never breeds in Denmark, but is not seldom obtained there,
especially on the west coast of Jutland. Mr. Collin cites numerous instances of its occurrence ;
and Mr. Benzon also sends me particulars of adult and young examples sent to him from
Ringkjcebing, Thisted, and several other localities. Mr. Cordeaux found it very common near
Heligoland ; and Naumann says that it not unfrequently visits the mouth of the Elbe.

Occasionally stragglers are found inland, usually driven in by stress of weather, and are, as a
rule, picked up dead or thoroughly exhausted. Borggreve says that it has once been obtained
at Neuwied, once in Mecklenburg, once in Oldenburg, and three times in Miinsterland. It only
visits the Dutch coasts in winter, usually after severe weather ; and the same may be said
respecting its occurrence off those of Belgium and France. M. Degland remarks that several
individuals were killed on the 6th July 1825, near Douai, and in February of the previous year
after some severe tempests more than 200 were found cast up dead on the coast near Abbeville.
It is stated to be common off the coast of Portugal and Spain. Mr. Howard Saunders observed
great numbers fishing off Cape Trafalgar in December ; and Colonel Irby writes (Orn. Str. Gibr.
p. 207), " During the winter season I always saw great numbers of Gannets in the Straits,
especially close to Gibraltar, where, according to the wind, they might be noticed fishing on
the leeward side of the Rock; and many a time have I watched them darting down from a
considerable height on their prey, often disappearing quite under the water. On the wing, to
an inexperienced observer, they appear like a large Gull. The immature birds in their dull
spotted dress, perhaps through not attracting so much notice, seem to be less in number than
the more conspicuous white adults with their black primaries. The earliest dates on which I
observed this species near Gibraltar were on the 11th of November, 1870, and the 12th of
October, 1871, the latest being on the 28th of March, 1872. I noticed many on the last date ;
but that spring was remarkable for the late stay of several northern-breeding species." The

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Gannet but rarely enters the Mediterranean. It has been said to have been seen near Marseilles ;
but Jaubert doubts this statement. Oddly enough, Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown remark
(Ibis, 1875, p. 431), "Bieltz mentions that this bird was once observed during winter in Tran-
sylvania."

It does not appear to range far down the coast of West Africa. Favier merely says {fide
Colonel Irby) that it arrives off the coast of Morocco in October, and leaves during March, not
being very numerous ; but Dr. Carl Bolle records its occurrence now and again off the coasts of
the Canaries. In South Africa it is replaced by Sulci melanura, Temm. (Sula ca/pensis, Licht.),
which differs chiefly in having the tail black in the adult plumage.

The Gannet does not appear to visit Asia — unless perhaps in the extreme north-west, as it
is said to occur off Novaya Zemlya ; but it is found in North America, where it is said to breed
in almost incredible numbers on the Gannet Rock, the North Bird Rock, and the Perce Rock
near Gaspe, and the Gannet Rock near Mingan, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; and in the winter
season it wanders as far south as the Gulf of Mexico. I have occasionally seen it in the Bay of
Fundy, where, Mr. Boardman informed me, it is resident, and common on the fishing-grounds.
A few breed on the Gannet Rock near Grand Menan.

Having had but meagre opportunities of observing the habits of this interesting bird, I
cannot do better than transcribe the excellent remarks published by Dr. R. O. Cunningham
(Ibis, 1866, pp. 15-20) respecting its habits and nidification as observed by him on the Bass
Rock: — "The form and appearance of this celebrated island have been so often and so elabo-
rately described, that a very few words will suffice to say all that is necessary on the subject.
It is about two miles distant from the southern shore of the Firth of Forth, and three from
the venerable town of North Berwick, rises to the height of 420 feet above the level of the
sea, and is formed of a huge mass of trap of a character intermediate between greenstone and
clinkstone. Its sides rise bold and perpendicular ; and on the east and west may be seen the
opposite openings of a cavern 30 feet high and 170 feet long, which owes its existence to the
hollowing agency of the sea. Its ' sloping acclivity,' to employ the words of the late Hugh
Miller, ' consists of three great steps or terraces, with steep belts of precipice rising between ;' of
these ' the lowest is occupied by the fortress, and furnishes, where it sinks slopingly towards the
sea on the south-east, the two landing-places of the island.' The middle, situated exactly over
the cave, has furnished the site of the ancient chapel of the island, while the upper and largest
was once occupied by the garden. The principal birds that breed on the Bass are the Solan
Goose, the Foolish Guillemot (TJria troile), the Kittiwake (Larus rissa), the Cormorant {Phala-
crocorax carlo), the Shag {Phalacrocorax graculus), the Razorbill {Alca torcla), the Herring-Gull
{Larus argemtatus), the Common Gull {Larus canus), the Great Black-backed Gull {Larus
marinus), and the Puffin [Fratercula arctica). The Black Guillemot [TJria grylle) is mentioned
by Ray, but has not, I believe, been seen by subsequent observers ; and the Peregrine Falcon
{Falco peregrinus) and Eider Duck {Somateria mollissima), which used to build on the island,
have for some time disappeared.

" The Solan Geese are met with in great numbers on all the several faces of the rock ; and
one or two colonies occur near the landing-places. Macgillivray estimates the number which he
saw on the occasion of a visit to the island in 1831 at about twenty thousand; and, judging from

185

the multitudes I saw when I visited it in 1862, I do not think there has been any material
decrease since that time. The Gannets make their appearance about the middle of February
or beginning of March, and, as a general rule, take their departure in October. A few, however,
seem to remain throughout the winter ; but they are not unfrequently seen during that season
by the fishermen of the Firth, and towards the close of last December I obtained a full-grown
individual which had been caught in a herring-net. The nests were described by the older
observers as built of sticks ; but either they were mistaken or the Geese have changed their
customs ; for nowadays, as I can testify by personal observations, they are constructed entirely
of grass and seaweeds, particularly the Fucus digitatus and other of the common Fucoids. They
are built in the form of a flattened cone, the base of which ' is about 20 inches in diameter, with
a shallow terminal cavity;' and their artificers exhibit great industry in collecting materials for
them, tearing up grass and turf with their powerful bills, and frequently engaging in conflicts
with one another during the process.

" They lay but one egg ; but if it is removed another is deposited in its place. It is of an
elliptical form, with a dull rough surface, and in its original state is white, but is almost always
more or less patched with yellowish-brown dirt, although I have never seen it stained with
blood, as is frequently the case with the egg of the American bird, according to Dr. Bryant.
I have been informed on good authority that the albumen does not become white when it is
boiled, but remains clear and colourless ; but I cannot speak from personal knowledge of the
fact. According to Macgillivray ' it is subjected to what might appear rough usage ; for the bird
in alighting, flying, or when disturbed by human visitors tosses it about and stands upon it.'
This habit has probably given rise to the assertion that the egg is hatched by the foot.

" The Gannet is but little adapted for progression on land, its gait being an awkward
waddle. Judging from the descriptions of Selby and Macgillivray, these birds appear to have
been in a very amiable state at the time of their visits to the Bass ; for the former states that
during incubation, 'in consequence of being unmolested, they become very tame, and, where
the nests are easily accessible upon the flat surface of the rock on the south-west side of the
island, will allow themselves to be stroked by the hand without resistance, or any show even of
impatience, except the low guttural cry of grog, grog ;' while the latter author says that, when
sitting, ' the Gannets usually allow a person to approach within three feet, sometimes much
nearer, so that one may touch them. When one approaches them they merely open their bill,
and utter the usual cry, or they rise on their feet and express some degree of resentment, but
little apprehension of danger.' When I visited the island three years ago my experience was
widely different ; for the old birds manifested every symptom of displeasure, and even a young
bird, but a few weeks hatched, squeaked angrily and made impotent demonstrations of self-
defence with its soft little bill. Prof. Innes also, in a note to St. John's ' Natural History and
Sport in Moray,' mentions (p. 204) an instance in which a young man suffered for his temerity
in venturing to meddle with a gosling in the downy stage ; for the infuriated parent made a
swoop at his face, and, narrowly missing his eye, caught him by the nose. I can likewise bear
witness that the bird is capable of inflicting a most severe bite with the razor-like edge of its
mandibles ; for on one occasion, when a live specimen was brought to me, it made a cut between
two and three inches long on the hand of its captor.

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" Macgillivray has well described the mode of flight of the Solan Geese in the following
words ; — ' In launching from the cliffs, they frequently utter a single plaintive cry, perform a
curve, having its concavity upwards, then shake the tail, frequently the whole plumage, draw
the feet backwards, placing them close under the tail on each side, and cover them with the
feathers. In some the feet were entirely covered, while in others parts of the toes were apparent.
In flying, the body, tail, neck, and bill are nearly in a straight line, the wings extended, and
never brought close to the body, and they move by regular flappings, alternating with regular
sailings. In alighting, they generally ascend in a long curve, keeping their feet spread, and
come down rather heavily, often finding it difficult to balance themselves, and sometimes, when
the place is very steep, or when another bird attacks them, flying off to try a second time.'
The Gannet appears to have considerable difficulty in taking wing when on low ground; and
hence individuals which have flown inland and alighted are not uncommonly captured. Thus
Willughby informs us that the bird he described ' was taken alive near Coleshil, a market-town
in Warwickshire;' and many similar instances are on record.

" As has been truly said by a late eminent naturalist, ' the early and more recent records of
the Gannet are full of fond inventions ;' and nowhere is this assertion more fully borne out than
in the extravagant accounts that have been given regarding its powers of diving. The late
William Thompson, for example, in his admirable ' Natural History of Ireland,' states, on the
authority of a postmaster at Ballantrae, in Ayrshire, that Gannets have been taken in nets at
depths of 180 feet in that neighbourhood. Now it seems entirely inconceivable that a Gannet,
if ever it penetrated to such a depth, could ever come to the surface again ; and even if it were
capable of doing so, it is extremely improbable, to say the least, that it would take such an
amount of trouble to procure prey that might be obtained so much more easily. Several
eminent authors have gone to the other extreme, and deny that the Gannet ever dives at all ;
but I can testify from personal observation that this is incorrect.

" Owing to the extreme power of dilatation which its oesophagus possesses, the bird is
capable of swallowing fish of very considerable dimensions. Its food in the Firth of Forth and
the other Scottish localities where it occurs, consists principally of herrings, and, in the English
Channel, of pilchards. A specimen which I obtained last winter, and which was kept alive for
a few days, was fed on herrings which had been previously extracted from the stomach of a Seal ;
these it swallowed very rapidly head foremost. Its powers of digestion seemed to be vigorous ;
for on examining its stomach after it was killed it was found to be nearly empty, with the
exception of cod-hooks, which must have been swallowed some time previously and were con-
siderably worn. Not rarely it becomes so gorged with food as to be unable to rise from the
surface of the water, on which it reposes in a lethargic state ; and while in this condition it may
be easily run down and captured if advanced upon in a boat. It is scarcely necessary to mention
that the statement of Pennant and other writers, that the Gannet possesses a gular pouch
similar to that of the Pelican, and capable of containing five or six herrings, is entirely without
foundation. The old bird, according to Macgillivray, at first feeds its young ' with a kind of fish
soup prepared in its gullet and stomach, and which it introduces drop by drop, as it were, into
its throat. But when its nursling is pretty well grown, it places its bill within its mouth and
disgorges the fish entire or in fragments. They never carry fish to the rock in their bills.' The

187

cry of the young bird is a shrill squeak, while that of the old bird is hoarse and resembles the
syllables ' carra carra ' or ' kurra kurra ' rapidly repeated. From one to two thousand of the
young birds are killed annually for sale, and, after being plucked, obtain a price of from sixpence
to a shilling each. Formerly, when they were held in greater value, they used to fetch con-
siderably more : thus we find that in Ray's time they cost Is. 8d. apiece. At one time they
figured at the tables of the Scottish monarchs, and more recently were much esteemed by the
citizens of Edinburgh and other towns, being roasted and eaten as a relish for dinner. Now, I
believe, their consumption is chiefly limited to the lower classes ; and I have been informed on
good authority that, being parboiled and having their legs cut off, they are sold in considerable
numbers to the Irish peasants who come over to Scotland at harvest-time."

It has puzzled more than one observer to understand how the Gannet escapes injury when
plunging, as it often does, violently into the water from a considerable height to strike fish ; and
a most interesting discovery, which throws much light on this question, has lately been made by
my friend Mr. John Flower. This gentleman has kindly sent me the following notes, viz. : —

" I send you below the particulars which you wish to have as to the coracoids of the
Gannet (Sula bassana). It was in December 1876 that my attention was first called to the
peculiar nature of their articulation to the sternum ; but it was not till August 1878, when I had
an opportunity of mentioning the matter to Professor Rolleston, at Oxford, that it occurred to
me that I had discovered something which was new, and that I became aware that the true
object and significance of the very oblique articulation of the Gannet's coracoids have never yet
been pointed out.

" To any one who has carefully examined the body of a Gannet it must be clear that if it
were not for the wings, there would be very little of the bird which could offer any great amount
of resistance to the water when it takes one of those very remarkable plunges which are so
characteristic of the genus Sula. The beak, head, neck, and body seem to be specially shaped
to suit the plunging habits of the species, and are most admirably adapted for passing easily
through water. But the wings create a difficulty. The bird is a heavy one, weighing about
seven pounds; and the wings, being necessarily large in proportion, have a span of over six feet.
When at rest they project somewhat from the sides of the bird; and during the plunge they are
forced, by the pressure of the water, tightly against the body and backwards towards the tail.
Nearly the whole of the strain which is thus caused, and which must often be very considerable,
especially when the Gannet is fishing in rough weather, is necessarily thrown upon the shoulder-
joint; and but for the arrangement next to be described, it would probably often be sufficient to
disable the bird. From the front part of the body of the sternum is developed a very large and
powerful wedge of bone ; and on the sides of this wedge the coracoids are articulated, not, as in
nearly all other birds, at right angles, or nearly at right angles, with the axis of the sternum,
but in a direction nearly parallel with it. When therefore the strain begins to be felt at the
shoulder-joint, the coracoids slide slowly backwards, down the sides of the wedge of bone, and
ease the strain. This allows the wings to perform a similar movement along the sides of the
body, which forms a cone, round the sides of which the wings are wrapped. By this exceedingly
simple and yet beautiful mechanical contrivance, of a wedge within a cone, the pressure of the
water is gradually eased off, and reduced to nothing, and this without any undue or dangerous

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strain being placed upon a single muscle or ligament. The very strong clavicles, and the thick
coating of feathers which lie between the wings and the body, must both play an important part
in easing off the effect of the blow caused by the bird striking the water. The clavicles being
fused to the end of the ridge of the sternum, would act as a spring, much in the same way as
the top joint of a salmon-rod ; whilst the feathers would act as padding, and help to prevent
any jar.

" I send you with this the breastbone of a Gannet, which will make the above description
more intelligible. It is the identical breastbone which I had in December 1876. I presented
it to the University Museum at Oxford ; and Professor Rolleston has very kindly lent it to me for
your use. If you decide to have it figured, I would suggest that you should have two drawings
of it — one of the front, showing the direction of the articulation of the coracoids to the sternum,
and one of the back, which will show better the shape and remarkable development of the
wedge. The significance of the above peculiarities in the Gannet comes out more clearly if the
sternum of the Gannet is compared with that of the birds most nearly allied to it, say with the
Cormorant.

" The side view of the Gannet's sternum seems to me not less remarkable than the front
and back. All the parts are enormously strong; and each clavicle, with its coracoid and the

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projecting ridge of the sternum, forms a figure most beautifully designed for resisting either a
push or a blow from the front, or a pull from behind, or from the sides. The wide spread of
the coracoids in front, and the direction in which their pressure is exerted on the wedge, are
also very beautiful pieces of mechanism."

The woodcut, representing the sternum of the Gannet, will illustrate the above remarks of
Mr. John Flower.

The specimens figured are the adult and young birds above described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, <S ad. ; b, nearly adult ; c, jun. ; d, juv. ; e, pull. Bass Rock [Small] .

5x

190

191

Genus PELECANUS.

Onocrotalus apud Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 519 (1760).
Pelecanus, Linnseus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 215 (1766).

The Pelicans, of which two are found in the Western Palsearctic Region, inhabit the Palsearctic,
Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian, Nearctic, and Neotropical Regions. They, like their allies the
Gannets, are essentially aquatic in their habits, frequenting rivers, lakes, and the sea-coast, and
feeding entirely on fish, of which they devour large quantities ; and they also carry a supply to
their young in the large pouch which extends under their bill ; they frequently traverse long
distances thus laden with provender. They swim with ease and great swiftness, and fly with
tolerable facility and speed, though they take wing heavily. Frequently they fly at great
altitudes, describing large circles in the air. Their note is a deep, loud cry, which may be
heard at a considerable distance. They breed in large lagoons or shallow lakes, constructing
on the small islands or on a platform of reeds a large bulky nest of reeds and aquatic herbage,
and deposit two or three rough chalky white eggs.

Pelecanus onocrotalus, the type of the genus, has the bill much longer than the head,
straight, broad, the upper mandible flat, compressed towards the tip, which is sharply hooked,
lower mandible forming two branches attached at the point, and sustaining a large membrane
forming a dilatable pouch ; space round and in front of the eyes bare ; nostrils basal, elongated ;
wings long, broad, the first quill longer than the fourth, the second and third nearly equal and
longest ; tail moderately long, nearly even ; legs short, strong ; the feet webbed ; the lower part
of the tibia bare ; tarsus short, stout ; claws moderate.

128

192

39 Q

o

J.G.Kenlemans HtL.

Hank art xmp.

ROSEATE PELICAN.

PELECANUS ONOCROTALUS.

19;]

PELECANUS ONOCROTALUS.

(ROSEATE PELICAN.)

Onocrotalus, Briss. Orn. vi. p. 519 (1760).

Pelecanus onocrotalus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 215 (1766).

Onocrotalus phoenix, Less. Man. d'Orn. ii. p. 371 (1828).

Pelecanus roseus, Eversm. Add. ad Pall. Zoogr. Rosso-As. fasc. i. p. 29 (1835).

Pelecanus minor, Riipp. Syst. Uebers. Vog. N.O.-Afr. p. 140, pi. 49 (1845).

% Pelecanus giganteus, A. E. Brehm, J. f. Orn. 1855, p. 94.

Pelican Mane, French ; Pelicano, Portuguese ; Onocrotalo, Pellicano, Italian ; Sassla,
Maltese ; Abu-djemel, Arabic ; gemeiner PeliJcan, Kropfgans, German.

Figures notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PI. Enl. 87; Werner, Atlas, Palmipedes, pi. 63; Frisch, Vog. Deutschl.
taf. 186; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 282; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 81. fig. 1;
Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 405 ; Roux, Orn. Prov. pi. 342.

Ad. albus rosaceo tinctus, occipitis plumis elongatis cristam formantibus et plumis in gutture imo elongatis
isabellino tinctis : remigibus primariis nigris, secundariis griseo-nigris in pogonio iuterno et extus
griseo-albis : scapularibus albis, nigro marginatis : plumis frontafibus medianis in cuspidem antice pro-
tractis : rostro caeruleo, culminis lateribus rubro notatis : regione orbitali et loris nudis cum fronte
flavidis, iride coccinea, : sacco gulari flavido : pedibus incarnatis.

Juv. supra isabellino-cervinus griseo-fusco notatus, scapularibus griseo-fuscis : uropygio albido : Cauda sordide
grisea : remigibus fuscis conspicue griseo marginatis, tectricibus alarum fuseis sordide isabellino
variegatis : corpore subtus sordide albido.

Adult (Egypt). Entire plumage, excepting the wings, white tinged with rose-colour; feathers on the
occiput elongated and pointed, forming a conspicuous crest; a tuft of feathers on the front of the
lower neck elongated, rather stiff, and tinged with isabelline ; primaries black ; secondaries white or
greyish on the outer web, and greyish black on the inner web ; some of the white scapulars with
narrow black margins; feathers on the forehead coming to a sharp point towards the culmen; bill
blue-grey with a pink line down the side marked with red ; bare space round the eye and sides of the
lump on the forehead with the forehead itself yellowish ; iris rich red ; legs and feet pink. Total length
about 46 inches, culmen 13 - 0, wing 25-0, tail 7 # 8, tarsus 4-5.

Young (Smyrna, 9th November). Upper parts generally dirty creamy buff, varied with greyish brown;
scapulars greyish brown ; rump dirty white ; tail dull greyish ; quills brown, broadly margined with
greyish; wing-coverts brown, varied with creamy buff; underparts dirty white; feathers on the
forehead coming to a point as in the adult.

Obs. I find that authors do not by any means agree as to the coloration of the soft parts of either this or

194

the Dalmatian Pelican ; and it is probable that the colours may differ according to the season of the
year. The adult of the present species has in the spring the forehead swollen so as to form a large
fleshy knob, which is clearly shown in my Plate. The young bird is said to have the bill dull yellowish,
marked with lead-grey on the edges, especially towards the tip, blackish on the chin; iris dark brown;
naked space round the eye pale yellow. Captain Shelley describes one from Egypt as having the legs
olive-black.

The Roseate or White Pelican (as it is frequently called) inhabits Southern and South-eastern
Europe, but rarely ranging into Central or Northern Europe, North Africa, and Asia, probably
as far east as Japan.

It has not been obtained in Great Britain ; but it has been recorded from Sweden, though
from all appearance it is doubtful if a really wild bird has been obtained there ; for a specimen is
said to have been shot in the autumn of 1859, a few miles north of Gaxahamn, which is supposed
to have belonged to Kreuzberg's menagerie, wrecked near Oland. This is Mr. Meves's remark ;

o

in all probability the same specimen is referred to by Professor Liljeborg (Up. Vet. Soc. Arsskr.
1860, p. 288). An old male is also stated to have been shot on the 8th June 1850, on the
Ramen lake, in Dalecarlia. According to Dr. Palmen it has once been killed in Finland ; for a
young example was shot in the early spring of 1839 in the parish of Karis, in Western Nyland.
In Russia, according to Sabanaeff, it does not range above Sarepta ; but Severtzoff once obtained it
in the Voronege Government, and one was procured in March 1860 near Rosloff, in the Smolensk
Government. According to Mr. Taczanowski the White Pelican is met with accidentally in
Poland. In the Warsaw Museum are two specimens — one killed near Lomza, and the second
in the Lublin Government, besides which, he adds, he knows of several instances of its occurrence
in other parts of the country. It is a very rare straggler to Northern Germany. Borggreve says
that it has been twice obtained near Danzig, once in Posen, once in Silesia, and once on the
Moselle. In Denmark it has occurred on several occasions. Mr. Collin says that he was
informed by Mr. Bendsen, of CEro, that one was shot at Traneskjser Castle, in the Borgso, in
the early winter of 1821-22. It is also said to have been shot at Ravsted, in Schleswig, in the
summer of 1857, at Frederiksstad, once on Fohr, and twice at Widau. As above stated, it has
been met with in Western Germany; and Malherbe says that there is a specimen in the Metz
Museum which was killed near there on the 4th October 1835. It does not appear to have
straggled to Northern France ; but it is found every now and again in the southern portion of
that country, usually at rare intervals, and especially about the Etang de Berre and the mouths
of the Rhone ; and Lacroix states that it has been obtained in the French Pyrenees. It is occa-
sionally seen in Portugal, but has not been recorded from Spain, and is, on the whole, much
rarer in South-western than in South-eastern Europe.

In Italy its apparitions are irregular; but sometimes it is seen in considerable numbers,
especially on the Mincio, the Po, and the Adriatic; and Mr. A. B. Brooke says (Ibis, 1873,
p. 345) that it has been obtained, though rarely, in Sardinia. Malherbe records it as of
accidental occurrence in Sicily. In the autumn of 1831 a young one was shot near Messina;
and in May 1834 five adults were killed in the same locality. In Malta, Mr. C. A. Wright says
(Ibis, 1864, p. 154). it is " accidental. In 1848 a great many were driven on this island during
a violent gale of wind from the north-east, and many were shot at Sliema, St. Julian's, and other

195

places on the north coast. In July 1859, after a gale from the north-west, a male in full
breeding-plumage was shot at Marsascirocco. At the end of October and beginning of November
1861 several were seen, and two or three shot (young birds)." To this he adds (Ibis, 1865,
p. 466) that a Pelican was seen on the Marsa on the 10th June 1865. In Southern Germany it
is common on the Lower Danube — but does not now occur in Bohemia, though it is said to have
been found there formerly. The late Mr. E. Seidensacher informed me that it has occurred
more than once near Cilli, in Styria ; and Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown, in their paper
on the birds of Transylvania (Ibis, 1875, p. 430) say it is "rare, but has occurred at Hatzeg
and at Reps, on the Alt near Hermanstadt, the Maros near Deva, the Kiilkul near Schass-
burg, &c. The specimen in the Klausenburg Museum was killed near the town. Boner (in
his work, ' Transylvania : its Products and its People'), alluding to the periods of migration,
says: — 'At such times the Swan, the Cormorant, and the Pelican have also been seen on the
rivers ; and Lieutenant * * * came home once bringing with him seven of the latter that he had
shot.' Stetter mentions that eleven were killed in one day at Hermanstadt ; and Herr Otto,
that fifteen appeared on the Szamos in June 1864, and remained till the end of the month."
In the marshes of the Lower Danube the Roseate Pelican is tolerably common, and quite
numerous in some localities. Messrs. Sintenis record it from the Dobrudscha; Mr. Robson
obtained it in the Sea of Marmora; and it is recorded from the Black Sea; but I have but
meagre data respecting its occurrence in Asia Minor, where, doubtless, it is not rare. It is
found in Greece ; Kriiper says that it winters near Athens, and leaves there in the spring. It
winters also in the Cyclades and Macedonia; Lord Lilford met with it in Epirus; and I
have examined a specimen from Smyrna, in Asia Minor, whence it has also been recorded by
Strickland. Canon Tristram does not appear to have met with it in Palestine ; but it is common
in North-east Africa. Von Heuglin says that it arrives in Egypt together with Pelecanus crispus,
but is, as a rule, less numerous than that species, though in some seasons the contrary may be
the case. It ranges further south than Pelecanus crispus, and occurs on the Lower and Central
White Nile, and even in Abyssinia, being also, in all probability, found on the Blue Nile.
Captain Shelley writes (B. of Egypt, p. 293) : — " This Pelican is very abundant in Egypt and
Nubia. On the 20th of April 1870, below Edfoo, we met with an immense flock of several
thousands, passing low along the river on their way north ; and although fired at several times,
they still kept streaming onwards in one continuous flock, without diverging from their course."
In North-west Africa, however, the Roseate Pelican is scarce. Loche states that it is merely an
accidental straggler to Algeria. How far south the present species ranges in Africa I cannot
say ; but Dr. Hartlaub records its occurrence on the Slave Coast in West Africa, and on the east
coast it is said to range south to Mozambique. In South Africa, however, there appears to be,
so far as I can judge, a fairly separable smaller form [Pelecanus mitratus, Licht.). Dr. Sclater
(P. Z. S. 1868, pp. 264-269) and Mr. Elliot (P. Z. S. 1869, pp. 571-591) have both written
articles on the genus Pelecanus, which contain much valuable information.

Mr. Elliot separates Pelecanus minor, Riipp., from the present species, and unites the
former with Pelecanus mitratus, Licht.; but he expresses a doubt (P. Z. S. 1869, p. 581) as to
whether it really is specifically separable from Pelecanus onocrotalus, of which, indeed, it can
only be regarded as a small though fairly separable race. Von Heuglin, on the other hand,

196

says that Pelecanus minor, from Egypt, cannot be separated from the Eoseate Pelican, and gives
the measurements of several specimens in confirmation of his opinion. On the other hand, he
separates Pelecanus mitratus as a specifically different South-African form, stating that he has
examined the type in the Berlin Museum, from South Africa, and adds that it " has a com-
paratively broader bill, the base of the upper mandible being more even, and there is a distinct,
sharply defined furrow along the edge of the culmen-plate." Unfortunately I have not been
able to collect a series of specimens for examination, so as to be able to decide for myself; but
it appears to me, judging by a careful perusal of what both these gentlemen say, that Von
Heuglin's view is the correct one ; and I have therefore followed him in treating the South-
African fonn as distinct, and have united Pelecanus minor with Pelecanus onocrotalus.

I have not been able to compare a series of specimens of the Roseate or White Pelican
from Asia with our European Pelecanus onocrotalus ; but Dr. Sclater (P. Z. S. 1868, p. 266) says
that there can be no doubt that the Indian bird is referable to Pelecanus mitratus, and is
separable from our European bird. This bird is found in India, China, and Japan.

How far east the true Pelecanus onocrotalus ranges I cannot say, but probably as far as
the Caspian.

Mr. A. O. Hume has described (Stray Feathers, v. p. 491), under the name of Pelecanus
longirostris, a Pelican from Dacca, which, he says, is " like Pelecanus onocrotalus, but with a
longer and narrower bill, and with the rib of the upper mandible much more raised." I can
venture no opinion as to the validity of this species, as I have not had a specimen for comparison.
The measurements given are — -length 4 feet 6 inches, tail 8 - 0, wing 27'0, bill at front from the
margin of the feathers to the end of the nail 18T.

In general habits the present species does not appear to differ from the Dalmatian Pelican,
with which species it is so often found consorting.

The brothers Sintenis have published some excellent notes on an expedition they made to a
breeding-place of the Roseate Pelican in the delta of the Danube, which has been translated in
the 'Zoologist' (1879, pp. 243-260) in extenso. These gentlemen found both Pelecanus crispus
and Pelecanus onocrotalus breeding in the same marshes, but keeping apart in separate nesting
colonies, though evidently differing but little, if at all, in breeding-habits. Speaking of a nesting
colony of the latter species, they say (p. 257) : — " The largest islands may have been occupied
by twenty or thirty breeding birds ; but quite small ones, sufficing only for one bird each, were
quite as numerous. Now these islands are more or less composed of reed-fragments, often
without any fresh vegetation, often also bordered by green rushes and other high plants. The
aspect of the large white eggs shining through the green all round is very charming when seen
from the middle of the lake. But when closely inspected the places look very dirty and
slovenly. The smell was bearable, the process of fermentation and putrefaction being generally
over — a sign that the birds had not laid since the 7th instant. Generally there were two eggs
in a nest ; but there were also plenty of single ones. Nearly half as many eggs as were lying on
the islands were floating on the surrounding water. The latter keeps sending up air-bubbles,
by which it is kept in constant commotion, no doubt caused by the substances putrefying at the
bottom. The eggs were in all stages of hatching ; but in most of them the young birds were
fully developed, so that we had some trouble to find a number which could yet be blown. The

197

eggs which our chasseur had taken on the 7th were, on the average, far less advanced ; and it
does not seem to us at all improbable that the heat of the sun may have had some influence
upon the abandoned eggs, at least to a certain extent. Our doubts as to the species of Pelican
were gradually set at rest. Almost on every island, perhaps with the exception of five or six
only, there were lying beside the eggs putrefying and putrefied young specimens of Pelecanus
onocrotalus in down — not a single Pelecanus crispus. This, in connexion with the fact that on
the 7th instant our chasseur had shot the four Pelecani onocrotali upon their nests, makes us
certain of the genuineness of the eggs."

Eggs of this species in my collection do not differ from those of Pelecanus crispus, either in
size or general appearance.

The specimen figured is an adult bird which is now living in the Zoological Gardens,
Regent's Park ; and it was drawn by Mr. Keulemans early in May, when in full spring dress.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. B. Tristram.

a, juv. Smyrna, November 9th.
a, b, adult. Egypt (G. A. D.).

E Mus. G. Ashley Dodd.

E Mus. Brit. Beg.
a, s ad. Europe, b, ad. Moldavia. c,juv. Africa.

5t

198

394

.■ C- ?.g-.iieiixajis litk.

Hanhaxc imp

DALMATIAN PELICAN.
PELICANUS CRISPUS.

199

PELECANUS CRISPUS.

(DALMATIAN PELICAN.)

Pelecanus onocrotalus, Pall. Zoogr. Rosso-As. ii. p. 292 (1811, nee Linn.).

Pelecanus crispus, Bruch, Isis, 1832, p. 1109.

Pelecanus patagiatus, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 361 (1855).

Pelican crepu, French ; krauskopfiger Pelikan, Riesen-Pelikan, German ; Baba-ptitza,
Barboussia, Russian.

Figurce notabiles.
Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 283 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 405.

Ad. supra sordide albus vix griseo tinctus : nuchae plumis elongatis filamentosis crispis : fronte plumosa mar-
ginata : remigibus nigricantibus, secundariis intimis albo marginatis et ad basin albis : tectricibus
alarum et scapularibus versus apicem nigricantibus : eauda. grisea, seapis fuscis : corpore subtus albido,
plumis in gutture imo elongatis, plaga, gutturali flavicante, regione oculari incarnata, iride margaritacea :
rostro plumbeo-griseo, lateraliter rubro notato : sacco gulari flavido : pedibus griseis.

Juv. fusco-griseus, nucha haud cristata, sacco gulari griseo.

Adult (Limacol marshes, Cyprus). Upper parts generally dull white with a greyish or bluish-grey tinge;
feathers on the nape elongated and very soft, feathers on the forehead coming to an even line across ;
shafts to most of the wing-coverts and scapulars blackish, except at the base ; quills blackish brown,
the inner secondaries margined with dull white and white at the base ; tail greyish, the shafts of the
feathers dark brown ; underparts dull white ; the feathers on the lower throat and breast elongated ; a
patch on the lower throat yellowish ; bare space round the eye flesh-coloured ; iris greyish j bill blue-
grey marked with red along the side ; pouch yellow ; legs lead-grey. Total length about 60 inches,
culmen 14"3, wing 26 - 3, tail 7 - 5, tarsus 4' 7.

Young. Resembles the young of Pelecanus onocrotalus in being brownish grey ; but the feathers at the base
of the bill come to an even line across the forehead, and not to a point ; head devoid of crest ; pouch
greyish.

The present species inhabits Southern, especially South-eastern Europe, North Africa, and Asia
as far east as India. It has not been met with straggling so far north as the Roseate Pelican,
and has not been observed in Scandinavia, Great Britain, or France ; and though Boeck says that
it has occurred once near Danzig, it does not appear to have been observed elsewhere in North
Germany. It has not been recorded from Portugal ; nor did Colonel Irby or Lord Lilford meet
with it in Spain ; but Mr. Howard Saunders says that it has been obtained at Valencia and in
the Balearic Isles. According to Salvadori there is no proof that this Pelican has ever been
met with in Italy; but it is found in South-eastern Germany, Greece, and Turkey. Messrs.

5 t 2

200

Danford and Harvie-Brown remark (Ibis, 1875, p. 430) that it is very rare in Transylvania; a
male was killed at Batiz, on the Strell, in 1850, by Herr Stetter. It is common, however, on
the Lower Danube, and breeds numerously in the delta of the river. In Southern Russia this
Pelican is tolerably widely distributed, wintering on the southern shores of the Black Sea, and
passing northwards in large flocks in the early spring, nesting also along the shores of the Sea
of Azoff. In the breeding-season it ranges tolerably far north in Russia. It is said to have been
met with near Jaroslaf in 1865 ; and Bogdanoff states that it nests as far up as the Samarskaya
Lukar, occasionally occurs in the Spask and Christopol districts in the Kazan Government,
and migrates along the Kama as far as Meselinsk. One was killed some years ago in the ltkul
lake, in the Kaslinsky Ural; in 1856 one was obtained near Ekaterinburg; and again in 1860
several were seen there, and in 1867 several near Tagila. According to Artzibascheff it is very
common on the Sarpa and all along the Volga from Tzaritzine to the Caspian. In Asia Minor
and Greece it is tolerably common; Dr. Kriiper says (J. f. O. 1875, p. 284) that "single indi-
viduals were observed near Smyrna, but it does not seem to breed there. In Greece it is found
breeding on the lagoons near Missolonghi and the islands at the mouth of the Aspropotamus.
The nests, 1-2J feet high, are built close together on the banks of the islands, and constructed
of pieces of reeds and rushes. The breeding-time begins as early as February." Canon Tristram
possesses a specimen from Cyprus ; and he met with it in Palestine, where he saw an immense
flock within sight of Mount Carmel. In North-east Africa this Pelican is numerous, more so
probably than the Roseate Pelican. Captain Shelley (B. of Egypt, p. 293) speaks of it as being
" abundant throughout Egypt and Nubia, frequenting the sandbanks in the river, often in large
flocks. It appears to be more plentiful than the other species of Pelican, and was the only one
I met with in the Fayoom, where I frequently killed specimens." Von Heuglin says that it
visits the Fayoom in huge flocks in the winter, and winters between Alexandria and Port Said,
but he never saw it in Nubia. It does not appear to range below Northern Africa, and, according
to Loche, is of very rare and accidental occurrence in Algeria.

In Asia it ranges tolerably far east. According to Mr. Blanford (Eastern Persia, ii. p. 299)
this Pelican is " abundant on the coast of Baluchistan, keeping to the bays and inlets. The
specimen obtained, for which I am indebted to one of the officers belonging to the telegraph, is
a fine female. This species is found also on the Caspian ; and De Filippi gives it, doubtfully,
from Lake Gokscha. I saw a few Pelicans, at a distance, on the Lakes of Niriz and Shiraz, but
of course could not determine the species."

Mr. Hume writes (Stray Feathers, i. p. 288): — "I have already noticed how wonderfully
abundant this species is in Sindh and along the whole Mekran coast. This is the Pelican that
the fishermen on all the inland waters keep tame. As with the Herons, so with the Pelicans,
they generally sew up the eyes, and fasten them by a string tied to the leg to the roots of some
bunch of rushes or a stake driven in below water-level. They thus serve as decoys to other
water-fowl, who, knowing how wary Pelicans usually are, readily settle where they see one or
more of these birds sailing slowly about backwards and forwards, and are thus netted or captured
in other ways. These Pelicans serve the fishermen, who are fowlers also, in another way : they
skin them carefully, and cutting away the abdomen, in fact the greater portion that would be
below water-level in the live bird, line the skin with a frame of thin basketwork. They are

201

very clever in mounting the birds, especially in dyeing the pouch and colouring it with turmeric
so as to look exactly as in the live bird, and also in imitating the eyes, which they manufacture
out of lac. When ready, the fisherman places it on his head, gets into the water, and progresses
slowly and softly, making the skin which conceals his head sail about in the water in the most
natural way imaginable, until he rea.ches the spot where some of his blinded and tethered
Pelicans are surrounded by wild water-fowl, which he adroitly pulls under water without in the
slightest degree disturbing the rest. Sometimes, we are told, he drags with him a piece of double
rope, twisted, with a stone or weight fastened to it. Each bird as it is caught has the neck thrust
between the twists of the rope ; and thus as many as twenty will be captured at a single trip.
Some have a light cord fastened round the loins, between which and their bodies they thrust the
neck. In either case they kill the duck almost instantaneously by a sharp twist of the neck. I
never myself saw the ducks thus caught ; but a man put on the Pelican helmet, and made it sail
about before me in such wise that, even when quite close, it was difficult to believe that it was
not a living bird."

Mr. Butler remarks that he saw this Pelican between Cutch and Pacham, on the western
coast of Kattiawar, and that it also occurs as far east as the Ganges Doab, where he shot it
near Etawah.

How far east it ranges I cannot say. Swinhoe affirms that it occurs at Amoy ; but MM.
David and Oustalet refer the species obtained by Swinhoe to Pelecanus philippensis.

I have seen the Dalmatian Pelican as well as its ally Pelecanus onocrotalus on the Lower
Danube, but had but little opportunity of observing its habits. I used generally to see them
ranged in a long row along the banks of the Danube, where they used to allow us to approach
tolerably close, and would take wing only when we were well within gunshot range.

Mr. Artzibascheff (Exc. Orn. Sarpa, pp. 93-99), who visited the breeding-places of this
Pelican on the Sarpa, gives an excellent account of its habits and nidification, which I translate
as follows : — " The Dalmatian Pelican nests on some of the lakes of the Southern Sarpa. When
I was there they made choice of the Khana and Tsaga-nour, constructing a huge nest of reeds and
aquatic herbage, which they frequently bring from a considerable distance; and it is a queer
sight to see these birds flying and carrying a large bundle of reeds in their beaks. The nest is
built in a shallow part of the water, without being always near the rushes. On this nest of
reeds, which is not unfrequently \\ metre above the surface, one can see the separate nesting-
spots where each female deposits her eggs ; and I have seen one of these rookeries tenanted by
thirty families or more, which presents a curious sight whilst the birds are sitting. The eggs
are deposited in April or May, and are generally two or three, and but rarely four in number. . . .
When fresh laid, the eggs are always bloody ; so that it probably causes the female more or less
pain to lay them.

" When hatched the young are quite naked and very peculiar in appearance. I have been
astonished at the little love exhibited by the old birds for their offspring, as, more than once, on
coming near a mode of Pelicans (moste being the Russian for bridge, and the nest is called by
that name on account of its resemblance to a bridge) and firing a shot, the old birds have left
their young, frequently without returning, although, as a rule, they are not very wild, and can
be easily approached. On my first journey to the Calmuck steppes I found three of these nests

202

or ' bridges ' of the Pelicans on the Khana lake ; and as I remained there some time I had a good
opportunity of observing their habits. As this lake contains no fish, the Pelicans used to go to
the Volga to fish, frequently to a distance of 100 versts (seventy miles English) from their nest ;
and 1 have seen them return with their pouch crammed with fish. Usually the males forage for
the females when they are sitting ; but when the young are hatched both parents go off to fish.
On approaching the nest the fetid stench from the half-rotten reeds and the quantities of excre-
ment is suffocating I have frequently caught these birds by placing a trap in their nests

or on places where they usually rest. The Pelican has an easy flight, and traverses immense
distances, often rising to a great altitude in a spiral flight, now flapping its wings, and now
sailing along ; and I have usually observed on approaching the nest of Pelecanus crispus, and on
firing a shot, that they immediately rise high in the air, describing wide circles until lost to
view. Their flight, though easy, is rather heavy, especially on taking wing; but when on the
water they can rise straight up. When flying, they draw in their head, so that their big pouch
seems to belong to the neck ; and occasionally they open their beak, and the wind filling the
pouch makes them look very comical. They swim with great ease, drawing in the neck and
curving the back ; and I have been astonished at their swiftness. Once I pursued a winged bird
in a boat rowed by two first-rate rowers for more than an hour ; and it doubled and turned so
that it tired my men out ; and had I not shot it again, I should have lost it. The Pelicans never
plunge ; but when they see a fish as they swim along, they dip their head and catch it. As is
well known, they often fish in company ; and I have often seen this curious sight of the birds
combining together for that purpose. They collect in a shallow bay, and arrange themselves in
perfect order, the two species often making common cause. The Cormorants, their inseparable
companions, do not fail to join in the feast; and the Gulls, Terns, and other fish-eating birds
are sure to put in an appearance ; and when all have taken up their posts the fishing commences.
The Pelicans, arranged in a semicircle, give the signal, approach the shore, striking the water
with their wings and plunging in their heads, whilst their faithful friends the Cormorants, as an
advanced guard, plunge again and again, and create terror amongst the fish so as to render them
an easy prey ; and as they approach the shore the booty becomes richer. It is a most bizarre
scene ; for Pelicans, Cormorants, Terns, and Gulls are mixed pell mell, the last adding to the
strangeness of the scene by their wild discordant cries. The Pelicans leave the water with their
pouches crammed with fish ; and if it is the breeding-season they go to share their booty with
their young, or with the females if the latter are sitting ; but when this is not the case they retire
to some sandbank to digest their meal in quietude and indolence. When the peasants see the
Pelicans fishing thus, they say ' Babi tianoutt ' (that is, ' the Pelicans are casting their nets ').
The note of the Pelican is a deep loud cry.

" The Pelicans of these parts and on the shores of the Caspian are not shy ; and when out
in a boat I frequently approached within fifty or sixty paces of an immense flock seated on the
river-bank. Directly a shot is fired they rise in the wildest confusion : and one can kill a dozen
at a shot ; for they sit so close together that they cannot all take wing at once ; and if approached
by land with a dog, several may be caught. These birds destroy vast numbers of fish ; and a
reward should, I think, be given for them, as they are so numerous at the mouth of the Volga as
to prevent the fish from entering this river, except where the water is deep When amongst

208

the steppe Calmucks they often requested me to shoot Pelicans for them, which they devoured
with avidity, in spite of their repulsive flesh ; indeed there is nothing that these men cannot
swallow."

Mr. W. H. Hudlestone, who visited the breeding-places of this Pelican in Western Greece,
says (Ibis, 1860, p. 395): — "Time was, and not so long ago, when Pelecanus crispus lived in
hundreds all the year round, from the rocky promontory of Kourtzolari, hard by the mouth of
the Acheloiis, on the western extremity of the lagoon, to the islands of iEtolico, up its northern
arms, and, on the east, to the great mud-flats which mark the limits of the present delta of the
Phidaris. Now-a-days a solitary individual may be seen fishing here and there throughout the
lagoon ; but the small remnant of this once mighty host have made their last stand upon the
islands which divide the Gulf of Procopanisto from the Gulf of iEtolico. Here, towards the end
of February last, the community of Pelicans constructed a group of seven nests — a sad falling off
from the year 1858, when thirty-five nests, the remains of which had not then disappeared, were
grouped in contiguous proximity upon a neighbouring islet. It needs not the nose of a pointer
to discover the locality, even if the large white birds themselves were not a sufficient guide. As
we approached the spot in a boat the Pelicans left their nests, and, taking to the water, sailed
away like a fleet of stately ships, leaving their newly built establishment in possession of the
invader. The boat grounded in two or three feet of mud ; and when the party had floundered
through this, the seven nests were discovered to be empty. A fisherman had plundered them
that morning, taking from each nest one egg, all of which we of course recovered. The nests
were constructed in a great measure of the old reed palings used by the natives for enclosing the
fish, though with these were mixed such pieces of the vegetation of the islet as were suitable for
the purpose. The seven nests were contiguous, and disposed in the shape of an irregular cross, —
the navel of the cross, which was the tallest nest, being about 30 inches high, the two next in
line on each side being about 2 feet high, the two nests forming each arm of the cross a few
inches lower, and the two extremes at either end being about 14 inches from the ground.
These latter, it is presumed, were intended for the junior partners of the firm, in the same way
that the great bear of nursery tales has a big seat, his wife a middling seat, and the little bear a
small seat. The eggs are chalky, like those of the Pelecanidee generally, very rough in texture,
and some of them much streaked with blood." Messrs. Elwes and Buckley also write (Ibis,
1870, p. 335) as follows: — This Pelican is " common in Macedonia, where we saw it in the Gulf
of Salonica and about the mouth of the Vardar. We were told that Pelicans bred in the great
marsh of Janitza, which is quite impenetrable, except in one or two narrow channels. On the
11th of April we visited a lagoon which runs back from the Danube three miles above Rassova,
whither a great number of Pelicans resort to breed. We had much trouble in getting a boat, as
the Circassians who lived there would not allow us to go in theirs ; but at last we brought a
dug-out canoe in a cart from Rassova, and launched her on the lake, which was surrounded by a
deep bed of tall reeds. We paddled up to the top of it, disturbing numbers of Geese, Grebes,
and Ducks, and came at last to the breeding-place of the Pelicans. The nest consists of a
shallow depression in a large strong platform formed by reeds broken down and heaped together
in the water ; and on this great heap of decaying matter the eggs were laid. Many of the nests
contained two or three ; but all of them were quite fresh, and in some instances covered with

204

bloody marks, as if they had cost a severe effort to lay. The old birds, when disturbed by our
approach, flapped off heavily and began soaring about above us. It is wonderful to see the ease
and grace with which they fly when once fairly on the wing, mounting up with hardly a motion
of the wings until almost out of sight, and soaring round and round like Vultures."

Eggs of this Pelican in my own collection are white, the surface being chalky and rough ;
and, like those of Pelecanus onocrotahis, most of them are marked with blood. In size they vary
from 3f£ by 2^ to 3J| by 2^ inches.

The specimen figured is one alive in the Zoological Gardens, at Regent's Park ; and the one
described is in the collection of Canon Tristram.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mm. H. B. Tristram,
a, ad. Limacol Marshes, Cyprus, 1863.

E Mus. Brit. Reg.
a, ad. Southern Europe.

205

Order IV. HERODII.
Family ARDEID^l.

Genus ARDEA.

Ardea, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 392 (1760).

Tantalus apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 241 (1766).

Herodias apud Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 559.

Ardeola apud Boie, ut supra.

Lepterodatis apud Ehrenberg, Symb. Phys. Aves, fol. m (1828).

Nycticorax apud Ehrenberg, ut supra.

Cancrophagus apud Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 42 (1829).

Buphus apud C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 589 (1831).

Egretta apud Bonaparte, Comp. List, p. 47 (1838).

Erodius apud Macgillivray, Man. Brit. B. ii. p. 134 (1842).

JBotaurus apud Macgillivray, torn. cit. p. 125 (1842).

Garzetta apud Bonaparte, Consp. Gen. Av. iii. p. 118 (1857).

JBubulcus apud Bonaparte, torn. cit. p. 125 (1857).

The Herons are very widely distributed throughout the world, being found in the Palaearctic,
Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian, Nearctic, and Neotropical Regions, seven species inhabiting the
Western Palaearctic Region.

They frequent marshy and wet localities, the sea-coast, the banks of streams and lakes, and
large marshes, and are, as a rule, gregarious, even during the nesting-season. They wade into
the water in pursuit of their prey, which consists of fish, frogs, insects, and occasionally small
mammals. Their flight is sedate and slow, but tolerably easy; and they frequently traverse
considerable distances on the wing. Their cry is a deep, harsh call, which is usually uttered
when the bird is flying. They breed in colonies, placing their nests either on the ground or on
high trees, the nests being constructed of sticks and twigs, and lined with grasses, wool, &c.
They deposit several bluish-white or pale-blue eggs.

Ardea cinerea, the type of the genus, has the bill longer than the head, strong, straight,
tapering to a point, gape-line straight ; nostrils linear, basal ; space in front of the eye bare ;
wings large, the first four quills nearly equal ; tail short, even ; legs long, slender, the tibia bare
on the lower third ; tarsus long, anteriorly scutellate ; toes long ; claws moderate, curved, acute,
that on the middle toe serrated on the inner edge ; plumage soft, full ; head with a long crest,
and the feathers on the fore part of the back much elongated, with close filaments.

129

206

395

COMMON HERON

AROEA CINEREA.

207

ARDEA CINEEEA.

(COMMON HERON.)

Ardea, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 392, pi. xxxiv. (1760).

Ardea cristata, Brisson, torn. cit. p. 396, pi. xxxv. (1760).

Ardea cinerea, Brisson, torn. cit. p. 403 (1760).

Ardea ncevia, Brisson, torn. cit. p. 410 (1760).

Ardea cinerea, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 236 (1766).

Ardea major, Linn. op. cit. p. 236 (1766).

Ardea rhenana, Sander, im Naturf. xiii. p. 195 (1779).

Le Heron commun, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. vii. p. 343 (1780).

Ardea Johanna?, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 629 (1788).

Ardea cineracea, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 580 (1831).

Ardea brag, Is. Geoffr. St.-Hil. in Jacquem. Voy. dans l'lnde, iv. p. 85 (1844).

Ardea leucoplicea, Gould, P. Z. S. 1848, p. 58.

Ardea cinerea major, A. E. Brehm, Verz. Samml. C. L Brehm, p. 12 (1866).

Ardea cinerea media, A. E. Brehm, ut supra. (1866).

Ardea cinerea minor, A. E. Brehm, ut supra (1866).

Ardea cinerea brachyrhynclios, A. E. Brehm, ut supra (1866).

Chorra-glilas, Gaelic ; Heron huppe, French ; Garpa real, Portuguese ; Garza, Spanish ;
Airone cenerino, Italian ; Busset imperial, Maltese ; Bou-auk, Arabic ; Aishoush, Bou-auk,
Moorish ; Fisch-Beiher, grauer Beiher, German ; blaauwe Beiger, Dutch ; Graa-Hejre,
Fiske-Hejre, Danish ; Hegri, Fseroese ; Hejre, Hegre, Norwegian ; Gra hager, Swedish ;
Harmaa-haikara, Finnish ; Tschepura, Zaplja, Russian.

Figurw notabiles.

DAubenton, PI. Enl. 755, 787; Werner, Atlas, Coureurs, pi. 23 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. xxxii. ;
Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 198, 199 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 42. fig. 2 ; Naumann, Vog.
Deutschl. taf. 220. figs. 3 & 43 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 41. figs. 3, 4; Gould, B. of
Eur. pi. 273 ; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 20 ; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pis. 186, 187 ; Roux, Orn.
Prov. pi. 311 ; Jacquem. Voy. dans l'lnde, pi. viii.

d ad. pileo albo : capitis lateribus et nucha, nigris, nucha? plumis elongatis : gula alba : collo pallide cinereo
vix vinaceo tincto : gutture nigro notato, plumis in gutture imo albis valde elongatis et lanceolatis :
corpore suprk, cserulescenti-cinereo, scapularibus pallidioribus elongatis : primariis nigris : cauda cseru-
lescenti-cinerea : pectore medio et subcaudalibus albis, pectoris et abdominis lateribus nigris, hypo-
chondriis cinereis : rostro, iride et regione oculari nuda, flavis : pedibus saturate viridi-cinereis.

$ ad. mari similis sed minor, nuchze plumis brevioribus, scapularibus saturatioribus et plumis elongatis in

2o

gutture imo cinereo tinctis.

208

Adult Male (Leadenliall Market). Crown pure white, this colour gradually narrowing towards the nape to
a point ; sides and hind portion of the head deep glossy black, the feathers on the nape much elongated,
three being five or six inches long ; upper throat white ; neck pale ashy grey, with the faintest vinous
tinge, the fore part of the neck marked with two or three lines of pointed blue-black feathers ; on the
lower neck is a large bunch of long, pointed, narrow, white feathers, tinged with warm ashy grey at
their base; upper parts ashy blue, scapulars paler, and having the webs divided and elongated into
narrow strips ; primaries deep black ; edge of the wing white ; tail ashy blue ; centre of the breast and
under tail-coverts white ; sides of the breast and a broad stripe running along each side of the abdomen
deep black, flanks ashy grey ; thighs pale ashy, with a vinous tinge ; bill, bare space round the eye,
and iris yellow ; legs dark grey, with a greenish tinge, yellowish on the soles and on the upper bare
part of the tibia. Total length about 37 inches, culmen 4 - 8, wing \7'7, tail 7"5, tarsus 55, bare portion
of tibia 2-8.

Adult Female (Sweden, 12th May). Differs from the male only in being a trifle smaller; the feathers on
the nape are less elongated, the three long feathers being wanting, or much shorter; the scapular
feathers are also darker grey, and the bunch of feathers on the breast is more tinged with grey.

Young (Leadenhall Market). Crown dark dull ashy, becoming black on the nape; upper parts dull dark
ashy, lacking the elongated scapular feathers of the adult; neck darker and duller than in the adult;
the elongated nuchal feathers and the bunch of feathers on the lower neck are wanting, and the under-
pays are white, tinged with grey, and broadly striped with blackish on the breast and sides ; bill
yellowish, dark greyish horn towards the tip ; legs dull dark grey.

The above specimen is evidently a bird of the year, having its first complete feather plumage. After the
first moult (that is, when the bird is two years old) the crown has become lighter, the nuchal feathers
are longer, the feathers on the lower neck have become pointed and slightly elongated, and the upper
parts show signs of the mature dress, but the black on the sides of the breast and abdomen is not
developed. After the second moult (that is, in the third year) the bird attains its complete mature
plumage.

In the down plumage the young bird is covered with long, fine, soft down, which is much elongated on the
back and head, and is on the upper parts light grey, and on the throat, front of the neck, breast, and
abdomen white ; the bill is reddish white, iris white, legs reddish grey.

The range of our common Heron is very extensive ; for it inhabits Europe as far north as Central
Scandinavia, Africa as far south as the Cape of Good Hope, and Asia as far east as Japan, having
been met with southward in Java, Australia, and New South Wales ; but Naumann is wrong in
stating that it inhabits America, as it is there replaced by Ardea herodias, Linn.

In Great Britain it is resident, and tolerably common, though far from being so numerous
as it used to be formerly when it was strictly preserved. Being, however, shy and wary, it is
tolerably well able to take care of itself, and there are few parts of England where, in suitable
localities, Herons are not to be seen. Yarrell gives a catalogue of all the heronries known to
him ; and since then several lists have been made out, the last being one published by Mr. J. E.
Harting in 'The Field' of February 17th and March 9th, 1872; and this gentleman states that
since then he has received notices of several others. As, however, I am not writing exclusively
on British birds, it is not necessary for me to say more than that there are tolerably large
heronries still in existence in many parts of England, and I have no doubt that the fullest
details will be given by Professor Newton in the edition of Yarrell's ' British Birds ' he is now so

209

carefully editing. Many interesting particulars respecting the heronries now in existence have
been sent to me ; but my space will not permit of publishing these in detail. It would appear as
if in many places the Herons had, chiefly owing to persecution, forsaken their breeding-haunts
and taken possession of others ; thus, for instance, Mr. F. Nicholson informs me that there are
at present five heronries in existence in Cheshire, and four have ceased to exist. The five
referred to by Mr. Nicholson are at Aston Hall, near Frodsham ; Burton Hall, on the Dee ;
Eaton Hall, near Chester ; Hooton, on the Mersey ; and Tab'ley Park. Of these only one is
included amongst the five enumerated by Yarrell as then existing in Cheshire.

Mr. Cecil Smith informs me that he has seen Herons on the Channel Islands, which must
have come either from the French coast or perhaps from the heronry on the Dart, in Devonshire ;
and he adds that in his own county, Somersetshire, the two heronries referred to by Yarrell at
Picton and at Brockley woods are still in existence. Mr. Stevenson, in his work on the birds of
Norfolk, gives most interesting details respecting the heronries now in existence in Norfolk, to
which I may refer those of my readers who desire more detailed information than I am able to
give. In Scotland the present species, Mr. Robert Gray writes, " is abundant in all the western
counties, and also throughout the Long Island, or Outer Hebrides. It is equally distributed
over the inner group of islands, where there are several, heronries. On the mainland these
interesting nurseries occur at intervals from the north-west of Sutherland to Wigtownshire. In
many of the wilder districts, where trees are either of stunted growth, or entirely absent, the
sites selected are very different from those one is accustomed to see in cultivated localities.
Mr. Colin M'Vean has sent me word that he lately visited one of the largest heronries he ever
saw; it was on the Point of Ardnamurchan, where the rocks are tolerably steep and covered
with ivy and shrubs, among which the Herons had built their nests."

In Ireland it is, according to Thompson, particularly numerous, owing to the large proportion
of suitable country where rivers, lakes, or marshes are scattered about. It has twice been
recorded from Greenland ; and Professor Eeinhardt, referring to these occurrences, writes (Ibis,
1861, p. 9) as follows: — "The common Heron was admitted in the 'Fauna Grcenlandica ' upon
the authority of the missionary Matthseus Stach, who said that he had seen such a bird on the
27th of August, 1765. Misunderstanding the words of Fabricius, Holboll in his memoir erased
the bird (never since observed) from the. Greenland avifauna. But in 1856 a young Heron was
found dead near Nenortalik, and sent to the Eoyal Museum ; and this occurrence not only gives
the species a claim to be enumerated here, but makes it not unlikely that the old missionary
may have been right." Mr. Benzon informs me that it has been met with in Iceland, where it
is a rare straggler, and its presence is supposed by the natives to forebode a good fish-season.
Captain Feilden says that it occasionally straggles to the Fseroes, and he saw one when crossing
the Skuoe fjord on the 24th May. An old male was shot near Saxen on the 3rd June, 1864;
Wolley mentions having seen a single example in June 1849; and M filler records them as not
uncommon stragglers. In Scandinavia it is not uncommon in the south, but becomes much rarer
towards the northern portions of the country, and has not been observed north of Lofoten, in
68° N. lat. Mr. E. Collett informs me that "it breeds in colonies on the west coast, but not iu
the interior, as far as Nordland, but is scattered only sparingly here and there, except near the
coasts of Stavanger and Bergen Stifts, where considerable numbers breed. In the interior

2o2

210

stragglers only are seen during passage ; but on one occasion a pair bred far from the sea, in the
Gudbrands dale. A few remain over winter as far north as the Trondhjems fjord."

In Sweden it is merely a summer resident, arriving in March or, should the weather be very
mild, even as early as the last days of February, and leaving again in September or October.
Nilsson says that it appears on the coast of Bohuslan in the spring and autumn ; near Gothen-
burg it is not very common ; and though it breeds in Wermland, in the Gillberga valley it is
rare, and is exceedingly rare in Ostergothland. In the south of Sweden, however, it breeds in
colonies in several localities. In Finland it appears to be extremely rare. According to
Dr. Palmen (Finl. Fogl. ii. p. 298) it is said to have occurred at Gloet, near Helsingfors, about
1820 ; and Professor W. Nylander believes, from what the peasants say, that it has bred at
Taipale, in South-eastern Finland. Mr. Sabanaeff informs me that it is rare in the Government
of Jaroslaf, in Russia, but becomes common in the southern portion of the Moscow Government.
In the Ural he did not meet with it on the eastern slope above Ekaterinburg ; but in the autumn
he observed numbers frequenting the lakes in the black-earth plains, and believes that large
heronries exist somewhere on the westei*n slope, probably in the Niazepetroffsk or Poleffsk Ural.
In the Kaslinsk and Keshtemsk Ural it breeds but rarely. I have no data respecting its occur-
rence in Poland; but Meyer speaks of it as being not uncommon on the Aa and Diina, in
Livonia; and Borggreve says that during the summer it is found commonly in the eastern
districts of North Germany, but, so far as he knows, in the western portion it is only met with
breeding in colonies in Oldenburg and the Lower Rhine. Stragglers, however, are to be seen in
Western Germany not only during winter but also in the summer season. I have seen it on
several occasions in the Rhenish Provinces ; and Mr. Carl Sachse, of Altenkirchen, informs me
that it is found there, but is not common ; for only a few are seen, but are met with at all
seasons of the year. There are two small heronries about sixteen or twenty English miles from
there, whence those that are seen near Altenkirchen doubtless come. In Denmark the Heron
is said by Mr. A. Benzon to breed in tolerably large numbers, arriving in March, or, in late
seasons, in April, and leaving in September or October. It breeds, he says, in colonies near
either inland waters or in the vicinity of the sea, placing its nest on large beeches or larches,
usually on the former, selecting the largest trees it can find, and placing its nest on the topmost
boughs. In Holland it is common ; and there are, Mr. Labouchere informs me, still some very
large heronries in that country, chiefly in Guelderland. One large heronry is near the railroad
between Amsterdam and Utrecht. It occurs in Belgium as in Holland; and, according to
Messrs. Degland and Gerbe, it is a summer resident in the north of France, but found through-
out the year in the vast marshes of Languedoc, Roussillon, and on the banks of the Rhone near
its mouth. It is included by Professor Barboza du Bocage in hislist of the birds of Portugal as
common ; and it is said to be resident in Spain, where, however, Dr. A. E. Brehm says, it did
not appear to him to be so numerous as it is in Germany. Colonel Irby writes (Orn. of Str. of
Gibr. p. 184) that it "visits the neighbourhood of Gibraltar in great numbers during the winter
season ; and they particularly frequent the district between the rivers near Palmones. Mostly
departing by March, some few pairs are resident about Casa Vieja."

In Italy it is said by Salvadori to breed in the northern and central districts, where it
seldom remains during the winter, but is common in the south, in Sardinia, and in Sicily during

211

the cold season ; and Mr. A. B. Brooke writes (Ibis, 1873, p. 340) that he found it very common
during winter amongst the large shallow lagoons, which are full of fish. Mr. C. A. Wright, who
has obtained it at Malta, says that it is not uncommon in the spring and autumn, and during
stormy weather it is occasionally seen in the winter. Lord Lilford found it common in Corfu
and all parts of the mainland in winter, and he observed it in August in Albania and Monte-
negro. Lindermayer writes that it arrives in Greece earlier than any other of its allies, and
usually about a fortnight earlier than the Purple Heron. It remains only a short time ; and all
but a few pass further north to breed, these few remaining in the north of Greece during the
breeding-season, and returning to the coast early in August. In the autumn all disappear,
except a few stragglers which winter in the south of Greece. In Southern Germany it is
resident, and breeds here and there in suitable localities. I observed it in all parts of the
Danube which I visited, most frequently in the marshy districts of Hungary and in Bulgaria.

In Southern Russia it is also common; and Mr. Goebel says (J. f. O. 1871, p. 142) that in
the autumn he has seen as many as fifty together in the Uman district : but it is not so numerous
there during the nesting-season ; for he says that there is only one heronry in that neighbourhood,
consisting of ten nests built on almost inaccessible trees.

It doubtless occurs in Asia Minor ; and Canon Tristram met with it in Palestine. It is to
be met with in Africa, very widely distributed both during the winter and in the breeding-season.
Captain Shelley met with it throughout Egypt and Nubia ; and it is stated to occur in Abyssinia.
Von Heuglin says that it is not common on the coasts of the Bed Sea. On the west side of the
African continent it is said by Canon Tristram to occur in Algeria, where, he writes (Ibis, 1860,
p. 77), it is " occasionally to be seen in the ditches and salt marshes of the oases in winter."
Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt-Drake met with it in Morocco ; and Colonel Irby states (I. c.) that, according
to Favier, it is " both resident and migratory in the vicinity of Tangier. Those which migrate
pass over to Europe during February and March, returning in November and December, being
at all seasons plentiful." It has been met with on the Gold coast, Gaboon, Gambia, and in
Angola ; and Andersson writes (B. of Damara L. p. 284), in Damara Land " this species is rather
common on and near the sea-shore, from the mouth of the Orange River to Walwich Bay,
wherever suitable localities occur ; but I have seldom seen it inland, except in Ondonga, where
it makes its appearance in December; but the natives say that it does not breed there, and I
think they are right." In the islands off the African coast it occurs, but appears to be rather
rare than otherwise. Dr. A. Dohrn speaks of it (J. f. O. 1871, p. 8) as being only a straggler
during passage on the Cape-Verd Islands. He saw a specimen which was killed at San Nicolau.
Webb and Berthelot record it as accidental during passage in the Canaries ; but Dr. C. Bolle
says (J. f. O. 1855, p. 176) that it is not rare in Teneriffe in winter, and he has frequently seen
specimens carried dead through the streets of St. Cruz. He was assured that no Heron bred
there; but Mr. F. DuCane Godman writes (Ibis, 1872, p. 221) that he "saw some few pairs
about the coast of Teneriffe in the middle of May, and was told that they breed on the detached
rocks near the coast, which is very probable, as they certainly do so in St. Michael's. It is said
to be occasional only in Madeira." In the Azores, Mr. Godman writes (Nat. Hist. Az. p. 33),
" it is the only resident species of Heron. A few pairs are always to be met with about the
lakes in St. Michael's, and occasionally on the coasts of the other islands ; but the sea is in most

212

6

places too deep for them to fish from the shore. I shot a single specimen in St. Michael's, at
the Sete Cidades, and saw the remains of an immature bird that had been killed some time
previously, which leads me to believe that the species occasionally breeds here, though I could
obtain no information as to the fact."

To return, however, to the mainland of Africa, I find it recorded by Mr. Layard (B. of S.
Afr. p. 306) as " very abundant throughout South Africa in all suitable localities, feeding upon
fish and frogs and an occasional snake. I am told," he says, " they breed on the Cape flats,
placing their nests in company on tufts of grass and rushes surrounded with water." Mr. Ayres
met with it in Natal ; and it has been recorded from Mozambique, Zanzibar, the Comoro Islands,
Madagascar, and Mauritius.

To the eastward the common Heron is met with as far as Japan. Mr. Blanford informs me
that he found it not uncommon in Persia in suitable localities; and in India, according to
Dr. Jerdon (B. of India, ii. p. 752), it is " of general occurrence throughout the country, fre-
quenting rivers and the larger tanks. It breeds on high trees, several together, but not
apparently in such numerous societies as it sometimes does in Europe; it feeds chiefly on
fish. It is in India, as in Europe, a favourite quarry for the Bhyri."

Severtzoff states (Turk. Jevot. p. 69) that it breeds throughout Turkestan to an altitude of
about 3000 to 4000 feet above the sea-level; and it has been recorded from Siberia by Radde
and Von Schrenck. The former says that he only once saw it at Lake Baikal, but that it was
common on the elevated plateaux of Dauria, and he found them breeding on the ground on the
Aral Islands, which are treeless. Von Schrenck writes that it is generally distributed throughout
the country skirting the Amoor, but is most numerous in the densely wooded districts on the
Southern Amoor. Pere David speaks of it as being common in North China, where it breeds ;
Mr. Swinhoe states that it occurs throughout China, Hainan, and Formosa ; and Temminck and
Schlegel record it from Japan.

To the southward it is said to occur as far as Australia ; for the Australian species is said
not to differ specifically from our bird. Mr. Holdsworth speaks of it as being by no means
uncommon in Ceylon. According to Messrs. Finsch and Hartlaub it has been obtained in Java ;
and Mr. Gould states (Handb. B. Austr. ii. p. 295) that he saw it on a journey into the interior
of South Australia in 1839, and received a skin direct from New South Wales.

More shy and wary than almost any of our native birds, the Heron is not easy to watch
within any thing like a reasonable distance. Having learnt to look on man with distrust, the
result probably of bitter experience, it is most careful not to allow him to approach, and usually
seeks safety in flight long before the intruder is within gunshot range. So soon as it catches
sight of any one approaching it stands erect, watching intently until the object of its suspicion
shall have approached too near, when it at once rises on the wing and flies heavily away. When
undisturbed and on the look-out for its finny prey, it stands motionless, its body held very erect,
almost perpendicular, and its neck doubled up, the bill pointing downwards, and only its small
restless eye is in motion, watching carefully for the approach of some incautious fish, at which its
bill is darted with lightning speed, and seldom misses its mark. When standing thus the
Heron is any thing but a graceful bird ; for the body is held low and seems heavy, and altogether,
the neck being drawn in, it has a clumsy appearance ; but directly it sees any thing which appears

21o

to indicate the approach of danger it erects the body, and raising the neck into a more graceful
S-shape, takes two or three slow steps to view the suspicious object; but so soon as its fears are
allayed it gradually relapses into its heavy, clumsy attitude, in which it will frequently stand in
shallow water motionless for a long time, waiting for some fish to approach. When walking it
takes leisurely steps, but is not graceful. Sometimes it will steal silently about in search of prey ;
and then the body is held almost horizontal, the neck being held forward in an undulating
position, and the beak kept low in readiness to strike its prey. Fish, however, are its chief
food ; and when these are to be had in abundance it scarcely feeds on any thing else ; but
according to circumstances it varies its bill of fare by catching water-insects, water-rats, mice,
or frogs, but seems to care least for the last. Young birds, when they come in its way, are not
disdained ; and it sometimes feeds on worms. It is a greedy feeder, and is said to consume a
large quantity of food per diem. During the breeding-season, when the young are hatched, it
must do considerable damage in places where there are fish-preserves ; and it will then extend its
rambles in search of food to a very considerable distance from the place where its young are.
It chiefly frequents freshwater streams which are shallow, and where the water is running, and
wades in almost up to its knees in search of its prey. It flight is strong and powerful ; and
though when on the wing it appears at the first glance to be moving slowly, such is not the case ;
for its flight is tolerably swift. When it rises it flaps its large wings quickly, and mounts on
the wing by making one or two powerful jumps; but soon settles down into its regular, some-
what slow and measured flaps, the neck being doubled and drawn in, and the legs extended
behind. Its note is a harsh, deep aall, which in the distance somewhat resembles the call of
the Wild Goose, and it is generally uttered when the bird is on the wing. When winged and
in mortal fear it utters a very harsh and wild cry, and lunges out viciously with its sharp
pointed bill, it being then dangerous to approach, for it almost always directs its attack at the
face of its enemy.

It breeds usually in tolerably large colonies or heronries, many of which, containing a large
number of nests, used formerly to be scattered throughout England ; but now they have greatly
diminished both in number and size. Formerly the Heron was strictly preserved for the pur-
poses of falconry, and was looked on as royal game ; but since falconry has become obsolete it
is no longer under any protection, and has consequently become much less numerous. The nest
is usually placed on a high tree ; but sometimes it breeds on the rocks, and even on the ground,
should there be no trees in the neighbourhood. Usually the loftiest and most inaccessible trees
are selected, the nest being placed on some of the smaller branches, and constructed of small
branches, lined with finer branches or twigs and grass, wool, hair, &c. The nest is flat and
somewhat carelessly constructed, the central portion forming a sort of cup-shaped depression,
in which the eggs are deposited. These latter are usually three or four in number, but occa-
sionally five, or even six; for Mr. Collett informs me that in a heronry close to the town of
Stavanger, in Norway, six eggs were found in a nest which was examined in May 1868 by
Mr. Landmark. It not unfrequently nests in the same wood as the Cormorant; and the latter
will, Naumann says, often try to take possession of the Herons' nests, which is resisted by the
Herons ; but, he adds, when the Cormorants have effected an entrance into the herony, the
Herons do not return to breed there again the next year, but select another locality, leaving the

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Cormorants in undisturbed possession. Mr. Benzon informs me that in Denmark it has been
found in some localities that the trees have been seriously injured by the excrements of both
the Herons and the Cormorants, and consequently the owners of the woods where they have taken
up their abode for the purpose of nidification do all they can to drive them away ; but, he adds,
they usually return again, and it takes two or three years to get quite rid of them. The Heron
rarely breeds except in company ; but now and then a solitary nest is to be found. Mr. Carl
Sachse informs me that he found a pair breeding quite alone, about six miles from Altenkirchen,
last year. The nest was placed in a lofty oak close to the river, and on the 25th April contained
five strongly incubated eggs, which he took. He tells me that he has often known the Raven
to rob the nests of the Heron, and when a lad he frequently procured eggs by dispossessing the
Ravens of their ill-gotten booty. "At Dolle, near Magdeburg," he writes, "there was a large
heronry in a wood belonging to the Emperor of Germany, situated about two [German] miles
from the Elbe. When we visited this heronry, and the Herons flew away, the Ravens imme-
diately pounced down and commenced to rob the nests, taking possession of the eggs, and flying
down to the ground with them to devour the contents ; but by running quickly towards the
Ravens they would take flight, leaving their booty for us to take possession of."

With us in England the heronries are now seldom very large ; and one of the most nume-
rously populated appears to be that at Costessey, referred to by Mr. Stevenson, which in 1866
contained about sixty nests. In France, however, according to Messrs. Degland and Gerbe, at
least one very large heronry still exists at Champignal, on a property belonging to the Sainte-
Suzanne family. According to M. Lescuyer de Saint-Dizier this heronry contained in 1864 one
hundred and seventy-two nests within the area of one hectare, the total number of Herons in
the colony, both old and young, being estimated at about a thousand. He climbed into one
tree which contained eight nests, in which were altogether twenty-eight young ; thus the popula-
tion of that tree, including the parents, was forty-four Herons.

I am indebted to Mr. J. J. Dalgleish for the following information respecting the heronry
at Ardnamurchan above referred to : — "This heronry is situated on the face of a cliff about four
miles south of the well-known and stormy Point of Ardnamurchan. The nests are placed about
80 feet from the base of the cliff, which at this point is covered with thick ivy, in the interstices
of which the nests are in many instances placed. The Herons have lately changed their ground
to a point a little distant from the original one, where they are secure from the predatory visits
of boys, who used to reach some of the lower nests by climbing. Their new place is too high for
this. The eggs are generally laid here early in May, while the young birds are still to be seen at
the nests as late as the end of July and even in August. There are two other localities in
Ardnamurchan where single pairs breed on rocks; and there are also heronries at Kinloch-
moidart and in Lochshiell, Invemesshire, and at Ards in the Island of Mull, all in the neigh-
bourhood of Ardnamurchan."

The eggs of the present species are uniform pale blue in colour, sometimes with small
white chalky spots here and there, and, if scratched with the nail, the shell is found to have a
peculiar chalky texture. In size eggs in my collection average 2^ by lf^ inch, and are oval in
shape, tapering somewhat at each end.

As the male or male and young have generally been figured, I have deemed it best to figure

215

a very old female from Sweden, which, it will be seen, differs from the old male only in having
the three long nuchal feathers shorter, the scapulars greyer, and the bunch of feathers on
the lower breast tinged with grey. In the background to the left is a young bird in first
plumage.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, <j ad. Leadenhall market. b,juv. Leadenhall market, September (H.E.D.). c, 2 ad. Boringe, Shane,
Sweden, May 12th, 1870. d. Nice (J. H. Gurney, jun.) e. Deccan, India, 1868 (H. TV. Feilden).
f. Amoy, China, December 1866.

E Mus. J. H. Gurney, jun.
a, 2- Darlington, March 17th, 1868. b. Hailsham, Sussex, c, 6 . Lincolnshire, March 19th, 1867.

2p

216

396

PURPLE HERON.

ARDEA, PURPUREA.

217

AEDEA PUKPUKEA.

(PURPLE HERON.)

Ardea purpurascens, Briss. Orn. v. p. 420 (1760).

Ardea cristata purpurascens, Briss. torn. cit. p. 424, pi. 36. fig. 2 (1760).

Ardea botaurus major, Briss. torn. cit. p. 455 (1760).

XArdea cancrophagus castaneus, Briss. torn. cit. p. 468 (1760).

Ardea purpurea, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 236 (1766).

Ardea rufa, Scop. Ann. I. Hist. Nat. p. 87. no. 119 (1769).

Ardea variegata, Scop. op. cit. p. 88. no. 120 (1769).

Ardea caspia, S. G. Gmel. Reise Russl. ii. p. 193, pi. 24 (1774).

Heron pourpre, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. vii. p. 369 (1780).

Ardea botaurus, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 636 (1788).

Ardea purpurata, Gmel. torn. cit. p. 641 (1788).

% Ardea badia, Gmel. torn. cit. p. 644 (1788).

Ardea monticola, Lapeyrouse, Tab. des Ois., fide Wagl. Syst. Av. Ard. no. 6 (1827).

Ardea purpurea, var. manillensis, Meyen, Nov. Act. Ac. C. L. C. Nat. Cur. xvi. suppl. prim.

p. 102 (1834).
Ardea purpurascens, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 293 (1855).
Ardea pharaonica, Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 113 (1857).

Heron pourpre, French ; Garpa, Portuguese ; Garza, Garza momma, Spanish ; Airone rosso,
Italian ; Russet culur-canella, Maltese ; Siad el mraj, Moorish ; Purpurreiher, Bergreiher,
German ; purper Eeiger, roode Reiger, Dutch ; Purpurhager, Swedish.

Figure notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PL Enl. 788 ; Werner, Atlas, Coureurs, pi. 24 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 43.
figs. 1, 6 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 221 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 77. fig. 1 ;
Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 274; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 21.

Ad. pileo et nucha nigris, plumis elongatis, nonnullis valde elongatis strictis, pendulis : mento albo : collo rufo,
taenia postica alteraque utrinque laterali nigris : colli innmi plumis elongatis, albis, medio nigris :
corpore supra saturate cinereo, dorso vix virescenti-metallico nitente, scapularibus elongatis dilute
rufescentibus et cinereis : remigibus et rectricibus nigricantibus, vix plumbeo tinctis : pectore intense
purpurascenti-castaneo, medio nigro notato : abdomine centrali nigro : hypochondriis cinereis, sub-
alaribus pallide castaneis : tibiis rufescenti-cervinis : rostro flavo, supra corneo : iride flava : pedibus
viridi-cinereis.

Juv. pileo et nucM saturate rufescentibus, fronte nigro immixto : mento albo : collo rufescente, in parte
frontali nigro striato : corpore supra cinerascenti-fusco, plumis omnibus ochrascente ferrugineo margi-
natis : remigibus et rectricibus ut in adulto color atis, sed secundariis intimis ferrugineo marginatis :

3d

218

corpore subtus sordide et pallide ochraceo : plumis elongatis in gutture imo indistincte fumoso notatis :
hypochondriis brunnescenti-cinereis : pedibus pallide viridi-flavis : rostro flavido brunneo immixto :
iride flava.

Adult (Seville). Crown and nape black witb a blue-grey tinge, nucbal feathers much elongated, forming a
crest when elevated, two much longer than the rest, measuring fully 5 inches in length; chin and
upper throat white, gradually becoming rusty red on the neck ; sides of the head pale rusty ; a black
line passes down the hind neck, and one on each side of the neck from the gape ; lower neck in front
covered with a large bunch of elongated pointed feathers, nearly pure white in colour, and marked with
long black stripes, the front of the neck above this bunch being also striped ; lower part of the hind
neck, back, and rump deep ashy blue or plumbeous, with a slight metallic greenish tinge on the back
when held in a strong light; quills and tail deep ashy plumbeous, the inner webs of the primaries
blackish; wing- coverts like the back, but duller, and with a brownish tinge; many of the dorsal
feathers and the scapulars elongated and filamentous, the former ashy blue, the latter ashy blue inter-
mixed with pale rusty red ; breast rich maroon-red, marked with black in the centre ; flanks ashy grey,
thighs reddish buff; under wing-coverts pale chestnut, centre of abdomen black ; uuder tail-coverts
blackish, intermixed with white ; bill yellow, darker on the upper ridge and at the base ; bare skin
round the eye greenish yellow; iris rich yellow; legs dark greenish grey, reddish at the tibial joint,
claws blackish horn. Total length about 30-32 inches, culmen 5 - l, gape 6 - 3, wing 14"0, tail 5 - 0,
tarsus 5 - 0, middle toe 5 - 0, middle claw 1*15.

Young of the year (Butrinto, Albania, October). Crown and nape dark rusty reddish, with a few black
markings on the forehead; chin white; rest of the neck and throat pale yellowish rusty, slightly
striped with black on the fore neck ; upper parts generally greyish brown, all the feathers with very
broad yellowish rusty margins ; quills and tail blackish with a grey tinge, the inner secondaries mar-
gined with rusty ; underparts dull ochreous white, the somewhat elongated feathers on the breast with
washed-out brownish stripes ; flanks brownish ashy grey ; legs pale yellowish green ; bill yellowish,
becoming brownish at the tip and along the edge of the culmen ; iris yellow.

Obs. The full plumage is only assumed after the second moult, when the bird is three years old. The
above-described bird from Butrinto is a young bird of the year ; but a second, older specimen, evidently
a bird in its second year, also from Albania, has the crown black ; the elongated nuchal feathers have
already appeared, but are not so long as in the adult; the upper parts are much darker, and the
margins have nearly disappeared; the long narrow feathers on the back are appearing, but are dark
brown intermixed with rusty; the neck is more striped with black, the underparts darker, and the
bunch of long pointed feathers on the breast is also to some extent developed.

Nestling {fide H. Saunders, Ibis, 1871, p. 390). Skin and feet yellowish green, yellow on the abdomen;
upper mandible greenish horn-colour, lower mandible yellow ; iris pale straw-yellow ; feathers reddish
brown ; hairy crest ; shafts of feathers lead-blue, all edged with white down, whitest on the abdomen •
claws horn-white.

In Europe proper the present species inhabits the southern and central districts, being somewhat
rare in the latter. It is found in Africa as far south as the Cape of Good Hope, and in Asia as
far east as China and as far south as the Philippines.

In Great Britain it is a tolerably rare straggler, but has been met with in most of the
southern counties of England. Yarrell records instances of its occurrence in Cornwall and

219

Devonshire ; but Mr. Gatcombe informs me it is very rarely found in the latter county, and he
has only seen one specimen killed there, a young bird, which he found hanging up in a
poulterer's shop in Stonehouse, and ascertained that it had been killed near that town.
Mr. J. C. Mansel-Pleydell states (Orn. and Cone. Dorset, p. 28) that Mr. Radclyffe shot one at
Hyde, in Dorset, some years ago; and Mr. Henning possessed a specimen, purchased in 1848,
which had been shot near Dorchester. Yarrell refers to instances of specimens having been
obtained in Suffolk ; and Mr. Stevenson, who gives full details respecting the earlier records of
its occurrence in Norfolk, says that he only knows of two examples obtained there of late years,
one of which was shot on Hoveton broad on the 1st July, 1862, by Lord Lilford, and the second
was purchased in the Norwich fish-market by Mr. S. Bligh on the 28th October, 1865, and is now
in Mr. Stevenson's collection. Mr. Cordeaux also (B. of Humber Distr. p. 103) cites instances
of its occurrence in East Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. It appears to have only been met with in
Scotland on two occasions. Mr. Robert Gray writes (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 276) as follows: —
" A specimen of the Purple Heron, killed in Caithness, is mentioned by the late Mr. Wilson as
being in the collection of Mr. E. S. Sinclair, surgeon, Wick. This occurrence had previously
been published by the Rev. Charles Thomson in his statistical account of that parish, dated
March 1841. Another example of this rare bird was shot in the parish of Monquhitter, Aber-
deenshire, in March 1847, as recorded in Macgillivray's British birds, on the authority of the
Eev. James Smith, who furnished Dr. Macgillivray with the full particulars of its capture." It
is said to have only once been obtained in Ireland, and is not found in Greenland, Iceland, or
the Faeroes, nor has it, so far as I can ascertain, ever been seen or obtained in Norway ; and,
according to Nilsson, it has only once occurred in Sweden, in Southern Skane, where one was
shot by a peasant lad on the 18th April, 1853, at Ostra Torp. In Finland it does not occur;
nor has it been met with by Sabanaeff in Central Russia, or by Meves and other travellers in the
northern Governments of that empire. In Northern and Central Germany it appears to be a
rare bird, but breeds in some parts of Central Germany. Gloger says that it breeds regularly in
Central and Lower Silesia ; and Mr. A. von Homeyer found it nesting on an island in the Rhine
to the south-west of Darmstadt. It does not appear to visit Denmark even as a straggler, but is
found in Holland, where it is said to breed ; but Mr. Labouchere informs me it is rare, and he
only once observed it not far from Amsterdam.

Baron de Selys Longchamps says it is of rare and accidental occurrence on passage in the
centre of Belgium and on the Moselle, but is more abundant in the great marsh near Venlo,
towards the Dutch frontier. It is met with throughout France. Messrs. Degland and Gerbe
state that it breeds in tolerable abundance in the south of France, and sometimes in Champagne,
but is a mere visitor on passage in most of the west and northern provinces. In the autumn of
1845 a large number passed by Lille, at which season only immature birds are observed, whilst
in spring adults are also obtained. Jaubert and Barthelemy-Lapommeraye doubt if it any longer
breeds in the marshes of the Bouches du Rhone, as it formerly did. It is included by Professor
Barboza du Bocage in his list of the birds of Portugal as being common at Alemtejo, and is also
a common bird in Spain during the nesting-season, but does not winter there. Mr. Howard
Saunders found it breeding near Seville and at the Albufera of Valencia; and Colonel Irby
writes (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 182) as follows: — "The Purple Heron in Andalucia only remains for

3d2

220

the nesting-season ; and I never knew an instance of its occurrence in winter. My earliest dates
of arrival observed near Gibraltar were the 4th April 1870, 7th April 1871, 25th March 1872,
7th March 1874. They are extremely abundant, and generally easy to get a shot at, being
seldom found in the open, but almost always among rushes or swampy jungle, and are very
rarely seen to perch on trees. There is, about five miles from Gibraltar, beyond the first river
(Guadarranque), on the right of the road to Los Barrios, a leech-preserve, grandly called the
' laguna,' perhaps two acres in extent. This swamp is a dense mass of tall rushes springing up
through masses of dead ones, the growth of years past, all so matted and tangled together as to
make it very difficult to pass through them, more especially as the water is in places up to one's
armpits. This delightful spot is a very favourite nesting-place of the Purple Heron ; and there
generally used to be three pairs nesting there, also two nests of Marsh-Harriers."

Passing eastward I find it recorded from Savoy as occurring principally on passage in the

spring, when it is numerous. It is tolerably common in Italy, where a good number breed, and

still more pass on migration ; but it does not remain throughout the winter, as it appears to do

in Sicily, where it also breeds and is generally abundant. In Sardinia it seems to be rather

scarce ; and Mr. A. B. Brooke states (Ibis, 1873, p. 340) that it only occurs there during

passage, none remaining to breed. In Malta, Mr. C. A. Wright writes (Ibis, 1864, p. 143),

"large flocks may be seen passing in spring and autumn. Single birds are also often seen

and shot. They alight on the carob-trees and along the sea-shore." Lord Lilford met with

it in the Ionian Islands, and believes that it breeds in Epirus, as he frequently saw young birds

in July and August; and Dr. Kriiper says that it appears in Greece late in March. He saw

the first in 1873 on the 28th March, and in 1874 on the 26th April in Attica, and states that

it is said to breed in the large swamps. In Southern Germany it is a common bird in many

localities. Dr. A. Fritsch says (J. f. O. 1871, p. 390) that it visits Bohemia almost every year,

and appears to breed there. In 1863 about a hundred individuals appeared in the vicinity of

Frauenburg, and nested on the Gross Tissy Lake. On the Danube it is a common bird; I

frequently saw it when travelling in the countries bordering that river ; and Messrs. Elwes and

Buckley say that it is common in Bulgaria, especially about the lakes and backwaters of the

Danube. In Southern Bussia it is stated by Professor von Nordmann to be even more numerous

than the common Heron. It is a summer resident there, leaving about the middle of September ;

and in the Uman district it is, Herr Goebel says, very common during summer, but as it nests

on the inaccessible floating islands he was never able to get its eggs. I have no details respecting

its occurrence in Asia Minor, where it is doubtless common; and in Palestine it is, Canon

Tristram states, scattered throughout the whole country in small numbers at all times of the

year. Throughout Africa, as far south as the Cape of Good Hope, the present species is found

in suitable localities, and breeds in the Transvaal. Captain Shelley writes (B. of Egypt, p. 266)

that it is " resident and very plentiful in some parts of Lower Egypt and the Fayoom. I met

with great numbers on the desert side of Birket el Korn, among the thick banks of sedge that

grow in the lake. They are not nearly so shy as the common Heron, and always frequent the

dense reeds ; on being disturbed they would rarely go straight away, but generally flew round

over the same spot several times, so that they were easily shot." Von Heuglin writes that it

was met with by him throughout the whole of that portion of Africa he visited. He believes

221

that it probably nests in the Nile delta, and he observed it throughout the year on the coasts of
the Eed Sea. In July and August he saw large flocks at Massowa ; in the late autumn he
observed it on the Somali coast, and in the winter and spring in Abyssinia, where it is found up
to an altitude of from 6000 to 9000 feet. In autumn and winter it is met with, usually in
immature dress, on the Blue and White Nile up to the month of March. In North-west Africa
it is also a common bird. Loche states that it is resident in Algeria, and is found on almost all
the lakes, its numbers being much increased during migration ; and in Morocco, according to
Favier (Irby, I. c), it is "a summer visitant, and nearly as numerous as the common Heron.
They pass north in April, returning in September, many remaining in the country to breed."
In West Africa it is recorded from Casamanse and Bissao by Verreaux ; and it also appears to
occur in Damara Land ; for Mr. Andersson writes (B. of Damara L. p. 286) as follows : — " I have
not unfrequently shot this bird on the rivers Okavango and Teonghe, and at Lake Ngami ; and
I believe it also visits Damara Land during the rainy season ; but the specimens which I obtained
in the latter country were not preserved, and I am therefore unable positively to identify them."
Mr. E. L. Layard records it as being abundant throughout the Cape colony, but he never found
it breeding there. It breeds in the Transvaal, where it is common in the open country ; and
Mr. Chapman obtained specimens on the Zambesi, where, Dr. Kirk states (Ibis, 1864, p. 332),
it is common in all marshy places and near rivers. Messrs. Roche and E. Newton met with it
on Madagascar ; and I must not omit to name that it is recorded by Mr. Godman as being found
in the central group of the Azores and at Madeira.

In Asia it has been met with as far east as China ; and, according to Pallas, it occurs as far
north in Western Siberia as 55° N. lat. Messrs. Blanford and St. John met with it in suitable
localities throughout Persia. Severtzoff states that it breeds in North-western Turkestan ; and,
according to Dr. Jerdon, it is " found throughout India and Ceylon, extending into Burmah and
Malayana." Mr. Holdsworth states that it is more common in Ceylon than the common Heron,
it is very numerous in the south, and breeds near Amblangodde Lake, a few miles from Galle.
Lord Walden records it from the Andaman Islands ; and Meyen, who obtained it at Manilla,
separated the bird obtained there from our European Purple Heron, on account of its larger
size. Professor Schlegel states that in the collection at Leyden there are examples from Java
and Borneo ; and Mr. Swinhoe once obtained it from Hankow, in Central China. It is not
included in the 'Fauna Japonica;' but Messrs. Finsch and Hartlaub state (Vog. Ost-Afr. p. 676)
that it occurs in Japan.

Though it resembles the common Heron in its general outward appearance, yet in habits
the present bird bears much closer affinity to the Bittern than to that species. Unlike the
Heron, which frequents large rivers and open places where it can have a clear and uninterrupted
view for some distance and can see an intruder approach from afar, the Purple Heron, like the
skulking Bittern, affects localities where the water is still, not flowing, and where the banks and
shallow parts are covered with a tolerably dense growth of flags and reeds, in which, by con-
cealing itself, it trusts to escape the notice of its enemies. It does not, however, inhabit the
dense, almost inaccessible reed-forests where the Bittern feels itself so much at home, but is usually
met with in places where there are open places between the water-plants, where the water is not
too deep, and in marshy places where there is a mixed growth of willow bushes and high grass

222

or reeds. I never recollect to have seen one standing boldly out on the edge of the water as the
common Heron so frequently does, but have flushed them when making my way quietly through
the reeds and herbage that grows so luxuriously in the swampy and marshy places. It is a
lighter, smaller, and rather more graceful bird than the common Heron ; but in its usual mode
of progression, both on foot and on the wing, it much resembles that species. It is most active
during the early morning and in the evening, remaining quiet during the middle of the day, but
altogether it is much less active and more sluggish than Ardea cinerea. When resting and
dozing during the day-time it sits in a most peculiar position, in which it may be compared to
an old pointed brown post sticking in the ground. It sits mainly on its hinder quarters, resting
on those and the hinder part of the tarsus (not on the foot) ; and the body and neck are stuck in
an almost upright position. Naumann (taf. 221. fig. 2) gives an excellent illustration of the bird
sitting in this awkward-looking posture, as it is said almost always to do when it is at rest. It is
a bird much more seldom seen, even where it is numerous, than the common Heron, chiefly on
account of its secretive habits ; but it gets attached to a place which it has once got to like, and
will remain there as long as it is left in peace. It walks with deliberate, slow steps ; and its long
toes enable it to walk with comparative ease on the floating masses of aquatic herbage which are
so often seen in the portions of the marshes which are covered with water. It feeds on small
fish of various kinds, in search of which it does not usually select the clear water, but fishes in
even the smaller puddles in marshy places which afford it plenty of cover. It is stated to devour
large numbers of young green frogs (Bana esculenta), which are extremely numerous in some
places; and Naumann names that they will occasionally eat mice, and likewise feed on large
and small water-insects and their larvae. It never seeks after food in open places, but always
where the cover of reeds or flags is tolerably dense.

Its voice is not unlike that of the common Heron, but is much lower in tone ; and Naumann
very aptly compares it, when heard at some distance, to the note or cry of the Wild Duck
(Anas boschas). Its voice, however, is heard but comparatively seldom, and then when it is on
the wing.

Unlike the common Heron it seldom perches on a tree, and then never on the top in open
view, but in the lower branches, where it is, to some extent, hidden by the foliage. Nor does it
select a tree for the purpose of nidification, but it places its nest, like that of a Bittern, on the
ground in marshy, usually treeless, localities, or very frequently on the floating islands of tangled
aquatic herbage ; or else a platform is formed, on which the nest is placed, by treading down the
rushes and flags until they form a support. Colonel Irby, who found it breeding near Gibraltar,
says that " the nests vary much in size, and consisting merely of a few dried rushes collected
together so as to form a sort of platform just clear of the water, are generally twenty or thirty
yards apart. These Herons commence to lay about the 13th of April, as a rule depositing three
eggs (rarely four), as the following few instances of nests taken and seen will show : — on the
21st of April two nests — one with four, one with three eggs, all fresh ; on the 6th of May two
nests — one with three fresh eggs, the other with three eggs hard sat on." Mr. Ayres, also
describing its nests found by him in South Africa, writes (Ibis, 1869, p. 302) as follows: — " This
Heron chooses for its breeding-place a secluded reedy swamp. The nest is placed some few feet
above the water (which is frequently out of one's depth), on reeds bent down by the bird so as to

meet from all directions, and thus form a sufficient support for the nest, which is a very rough
structure, composed of dead sticks and pieces of reeds ; it is two or three feet in diameter, with
a very slight concavity. These Herons lay three or four eggs ; and frequently five or six pairs
breed in company, placing their nests within a few yards of each other." I possess eggs of the
Purple Heron obtained in Hungary by Herr Zelebor, which closely resemble those of Ardea
cinerea, except in size, being smaller, measuring only from 2-^ 6 by Iff inch to 2f$ by If $ inch.

The specimens figured are an adult male and young bird in its first autumn plumage, these
being those above described.

'b

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, 6 ad. Seville {Llanos), b, ad. Butrinto, Albania, 1869. c,jun. Albania. d,juv. Butrinto, October 1871
(H. Barclay).

223

224

397

-

ARDEA ATRICOLLiS

XVII

225

ARDEA MELANOCEPHALA.

(BLACK-NECKED HERON.)

Ardea melanocephala, Childr. & Vig. App. to Denh. & Clappert. Trav. p. 201 (1826).
Ardea atricollis, Wagl. Syst. Av. Ardea, sp. 4 (1827).

Ad. pileo cristato, plumis quatuor pendulis ornato, genis et collo postico saturate ardesiacis : dorso plumbe-
scenti-cinereo viridi lavato : plumis scapularibus elongatis pendulis lanceolatis cinereis, exterioribus
lactescenti-albis : dorso postico clare cinereo : tectricibus alarum plumbeis viridi lavatis, majoribus
cinereis, plus minusve canescentibus : remigibus et rectricibus saturate plumbeis : gutture toto albo :
collo inferiore ardesiaco, nigro vario : jugulo albo lineis lanceolatis ardesiacis longitudinaliter striato :
corpore reliquo subtus pulcbre cinereo : subalaribus et pennis axillaribus pure albis : pedibus nigris :
maxilla nigra, mandibula flavicante : iride flava.

Adult. Head, which is ornamented with four pendent plumes, ear-coverts, and back of the neck blackish
grey ; upper part of the back dull leaden grey, with a slight greenish lustre ; lower part of the back
clear grey ; scapulars for the most part leaden grey, tinged slightly with green like the back, all the
feathers elongated and lanceolate in form, some of the central and outer feathers clear grey, verging
into cream-colour ; wing-coverts dark grey with a slight green lustre, the oiitermost clear grey : quills
dark leaden grey, some of the primaries tipped with brown, the secondaries somewhat paler grey, also
tinged with greenish ; tail dark grey, some of the outer feathers tipped with brownish ; chin and throat
pure white ; upper portion of the neck blackish grey like the head, a few of the feathers being centred
with white ; lower down the neck is white, the feathers being edged with dark grey, all the plumes
elongated and hair-like ; under surface of the body clear grey, somewhat inclining to white ; under tail-
coverts dark grey, streaked down the centre with white; under wing- coverts and axillary plumes pure
white; legs and feet black; upper mandible black, under mandible greenish yellow, as also the skin
round the eye; eye light yellow (Ayres). Total length 31*5 inches, culm 3 - 0, wing 15 - 8, tail 6*2,
tarsus 4*4.

Young, before the first moult. Upper part of the head, neck, scapulars, and upper wing-coverts of an ashy
grey, tinged with brown and washed with green between the shoulders, and more or less washed with
rufous on the other parts ; sides of the head grey shaded with blackish, and having a black spot below
the eye ; throat and sides of the neck white washed with pale rufous, relieved in the centre of the neck
by narrow longitudinal stripes of yellow; lower part of the neck and breast of a pale grey, washed with
very light rust-colour ; rest of the underparts of the body of a yellowish white ; outer border of the
wing and axillary plumes white ; quills bluish black, less intense than in the adult, with the secondaries
externally bordered with grey; tail-feathers bluish black; beak rather more yellow than in the adult;
feet tinged with reddish; feathers of the crest and breast scarcely so long as in the adults.

The Black-necked Heron is only a straggler to Europe ; and the following account of its
occurrence is taken from the work of MM. Degland and Gerbe : —

"We recorded in the 'Revue Zoologique' for 1854 the occurrence of this bird in Provence.
A magnificent male, in fully adult plumage, in the collection of M. Jauffret de Draguignan, was

226

killed about 1845, near Hyeres, by the late Mr. Besson, a naturalist. A second, no less authentic,
occurrence was named to us by the custom-house officers stationed on the Petit Rhone, near
Saintes-Maries. It is also stated to occur sometimes in Spain."

With regard to this last statement we are at present unaware of any corroborative evidence.

Regarding its occurrence in Algeria the late Captain Loche observes : —

" Its habits are the same as those of the common Heron, to which it bears great resemblance,
though it cannot be mistaken for it. It is only accidentally that it has been procured in Algeria,
but is said to be common in Abyssinia and the Sudan, Senegambia, Guinea, and down to the
Cape of Good Hope. Denham and Clapperton saw large numbers on the lakes and marshes of
Bornou and Loggoun, in company with others of the same family."

The Rev. Canon Tristram has also informed us that he saw the present species " in Eastern
Algeria, very far south, in a chott."

In his list of the Birds of North-eastern Africa, Dr. von Heuglin has published a short note
on the Black-necked Heron, to the effect that it is not rare in Abyssinia and Eastern Senaar, and
frequents open fields, and not the vicinity of water ; but this latter statement does not agree with
the experience of Dr. Hartmann, as detailed below. His notes are as follows : —

" Ardea atricollis, which I had repeated opportunities of seeing in Inner Sennar, Roseres,
and Fazoglo, does not, as stated by Heuglin, frequent the open fields, but is generally found near
water. Here it consorts with other Waders, and rests on high trees further inland. It is said
to nest in June, on the wooded islands of the Nile, or in swamps, as, for instance, Moje Diisah
and Berket Qaoli."

Mr. Blanford states : —

" I once obtained a specimen of this Heron. It was killed in a swampy meadow, near
Adabagi, two marches south of Adigrat, at an altitude of about 8000 feet above the sea."

The present species appears to be distributed all over the Ethiopian Region. Brehm gives
its northern range in North-eastern Africa as 14° N. lat. ; and it has been collected on the White
Nile by Antinori, Heuglin, Brun-Rollet, and others. It seems to be found throughout Western
Africa, having been sent from Bissao by Beaudouin, while a specimen is in the Leyden Museum,
from Senegambia. Pel obtained it on the Gold Coast; and Mr. Gurney has received it from
Ibadan, whence it was sent by Mrs. Hinderer. The natives of this place call it " Ako ; " and the
eyes were stated to be deep purple, and the food snakes and lizards. It is to be noticed that the
colour of the eye, as given above, does not agree with the experience of Mr. Ayres. In Benguela,
says Mr. Monteiro, it is " abundant on all the fresh-, salt-, and brackish-water lagoons and
marshes along the whole coast of Angola. It is often kept tame in the houses, and, though
preferring fish, will eat almost all other kinds of food."

The Black-necked Heron was likewise obtained by the late Mr. Andersson in Damaraland
and Ovampo ; and Layard has included it in the Birds of the Cape Colony. From Natal and the
Transvaal Republic it has been sent by Mr. Ayres ; and it was observed in the Zambesi region by
Dr. Kirk, who says it was " scattered throughout the marshy regions of the rivers and lakes ;
commonly found singly or in pairs." The late Baron von der Decken found it in the interior of
the Suaheli country. It likewise occurs in Mayotte, according to Mr. Pollen, and is stated by
M. Jules Verreaux to have been sent from Madagascar.

227

We do not transcribe the notes published in Mr. Layard's ' Birds of South Africa,' as
that gentleman has very kindly sent us an original communication for the present work, as
follows : —

" In my ' Birds of South Africa ' I stated my suspicions that this Heron was more common
than is generally supposed ; and these have been abundantly verified by a more extended acquaint-
ance with the species ; indeed in some places their numbers exceed those of the Common Heron
(Ardea cinerea), with which they are almost always found mingled.

"The huge reed-beds of Verloren Vley and the Berg River literally teem with Herons,
Anhingas, and the smallest Cape-Cormorant (Graculus africanus), conspicuous amongst them
being A. melanocephala. It breeds indiscriminately on the dense reed-beds, or on the more
exposed sides of the river-banks, and selects equally the summit of a small scraggy bush
surrounded by reeds, or the reeds themselves. When using the latter as the platform of the
nest, the old birds first precipitate themselves with expanded wings upon the chosen site so as
to beat down enough of the upright reed to afford them standing room. The requisite stems
are then bent inwards and interlaced till a firm foundation is laid; and the nest, composed of
flags and rushes and other soft water-plants, is constructed upon it. It is often a huge mass of
material — sometimes a good cart-load — and is generally, when on the river-bank, placed con-
spicuously, but always towards the water, as if the birds feared no attack from that side, and
were ignorant of boats. We found A. cinerea adopting precisely similar habits ; indeed we often
could not tell which nest we had found, if the owner did not happen to be at home, and so had
to leave it till our return journey down the river, having made a note of the place, which we
carefully scanned, on reapproaching it, with our trusty binoculars (what a blessing these are to
the collecting naturalist !). The parent birds, generally one on the nest and the other ' sitting
about,' would almost always be seen, and usually suffered us to approach within gunshot.

" I found the average size of the eggs at the Berg River rather larger than that given in the
' Birds of South Africa ' (p. 306), which I suspect must have been taken from those of A. cinerea ;
the farmers generally do not discriminate between the two species. Our eggs from the Berg
River averaged, axis 2" 5'", diam. 1" 4'". In colour they exactly resemble those of A. cinerea.

" In general habits the two species do not differ ; their attitudes and manners are identical,
and when on the wing, at a little distance, they are not distinguishable. When close, A. melano-
cephala appears darker; and if the neck should be exserted the black shows, not otherwise.
Both utter the same rattling croak on the wing, and feed on the same substances.

" It does not appear to have been met with near Graham's Town, perhaps because the vleys
and reed-beds are few, and the rivers in that neighbourhood run between precipitous banks, and
are not fringed with reeds as are the more sluggish waters of the western side."

Our good friend M. Jules Verreaux, the well-known African explorer and ornithologist,
has given us the following note on this Heron, as observed by him in South Africa many
years ago : —

" I may tell you that, without being common in any one part of the Cape of Good Hope,
this bird is very generally distributed all through the colony. In the southern part, near the
Swart Kop, as far as Buffalo River, it is found not uncommonly either at the edge of the water or
amongst the rushes. It will stand for hours on one leg without moving, watching for small fish

Q

228

or the various sorts of frogs which are so plentiful. It does not, however, despise locusts, which
at certain periods are so numerous as to darken the sun for several hours. In the stomachs of
many specimens that we have skinned, we have found large quantities of Tadpoles, which, during
the season for them, are found everywhere, even in small pools. Small Lizards are also often
seized by these Herons. We have almost invariably seen them singly, except during the breeding-
season. At this time the pair, after having chosen a high tree near the water for their nesting-
place, work together at the construction of their nest, which is formed of dried rushes, large, and
very flat, very carelessly constructed ; and as generally several pairs unite during the season, the
result is that their nests touch each other, the one strengthening the other thereby. Sometimes
the Platalea tenuirostris, and even Plotus levaillantii, build their nests so close together that they
touch, and so carelessly that when on weak branches that bend under the weight, and the wind
is high, an egg will now and again during the period of incubation slip out and fall down. Still,
even when the young are hatched, the whole mixed colony appear to live in perfect harmony,
each pair tending only its own progeny. We also observed that when these resorts were not
disturbed, each pair returned on the following year to take possession of their old nest, which
they repaired with fresh materials, in such a manner, however, as not to increase the bulk.

" Where trees are wanting, or far distant from the water, .these birds nest in the rushes,
always, however, in colonies, in company either with others of their own or of quite different
species. In the locality called Verloren Vley (or the Lost Lake), to the east of the Cape, when-
ever we were there during the breeding-season we found thousands of nests of more than fifty
species of both Waders and Waterfowl, of which the nests were placed so close together that it
was impossible to walk there without trampling on either eggs or young ; and here we procured
the various specimens, of various ages, of this Heron described in MM. Degland and Gerbe's
work, and which are now in the National Museum in Paris."

From Natal Mr. Ayres forwarded a specimen in 1859, and says, " The contents of the
stomach were Lizards, Locusts, a snake about two feet long, and a large Eat — all swallowed
whole, and quite fresh. This bird was shot in a marshy valley about a mile from the coast,
and is the only one of the kind I have seen." More recently, however, Mr. Ayres has met with
the bird in the Transvaal.

The present species has been well described and figured. We may mention the following
as among the principal references relating to its literary history. It was originally described in
the Appendix to Denham and Clapperton's 'Travels;' but the author is not mentioned; conse-
quently the describer of the species is variously designated as Mr. Children or Mr. Vigors. Nor
have we been able to find out who the author really was, the only contemporary notice of the
work that we could discover being in the ' Zoological Journal,' where the zoological portion of
the work is said to have been done by Messrs. Children and Vigors ; and we have thus quoted
them as the joint authors. In 1846 a good figure of the adult was given by Des Murs in his
' Iconographie Ornithologique ;' and in 1849 Sir Andrew Smith figured both old and young birds
in the ' Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa.'

These latter figures were copied by Eeichenbach. The best general account of the
species has been given in the recently published ' Ornithologie Ost-Afrika's ' of Drs. Finsch
and Hartlaub.

229

The figure in the Plate is taken from an adult bird in our own collection. The description
of the adult is from a beautiful skin in Dr. Tristram's possession, sent to him from Transvaal by
Mr. Ayres, while the description of the young is copied from Degland and Gerbe's ' Ornithologie
Europeenne,' this being originally taken from specimens brought home by M. Jules Verreaux
from South Africa.

In the preparation of the above article we have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. Sharpe and Dresser.

a. Natal.

E Mus. H. B. Tristram,
a. Transvaal [Ayres). b. <$ . Ondonga, Ovampo, November 2nd, 1866 (Andersson).

Q2

230

398

t

J.G.Keolemaiis Mh.

GREAT WHITE EGRET.

A R DE A ALRA.

HaTiHart imp.

231

AEDEA ALBA.

(GREAT WHITE EGEET.)

Ardea Candida, Briss. Orn. v. p. 428 (1760, partim).

Ardea alba, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 239 (1766).

Ardea egrettoides, S. G. Gmel. Reise d. Russl. ii. p. 193, pi. 25 (1774).

he Heron blanc, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. vii. p. 365 (1780).

Ardea egretta, Bechst. Gemeinn. Naturg. Deutschl. iii. p. 41 (1793, nee Gmel.).

Herodias egretta, Boie, lsis, 1822, p. 559 (nee Gmel.).

Lepterodatis flavirostris, Ehr. Symb. Phys. Aves, fol. m (1829).

Herodias Candida, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 584 (1831).

Herodias egretta, C. L. Brehm, torn. cit. p. 585 (1831, nee Gm.).

Ardea modesta, Gray & Hardvv. 111. Ind. Zool. ii. pi. 49 (1834).

Egretta alba (L.), Bp. Comp. List, p. 47(1838).

Egretta orientalis, Bp. ut supra (1838).

Erodius albus (L.), Macg. Man. Brit. B. ii. p. 134 (1842).

Erodius victories, Macg. Man. Brit. B. ii. p. 131 (1842).

Herodias syrmatophorus, Gould, B. of Australia, vi. pi. 56 (1848).

Egretta nigrirostris, Macg. Hist. B. B. iv. p. 460 (1852).

Herodias lateifii, A. E. Brehm, J. f. Orn. 1854, p. 80.

% Herodias brevirostris, A. E. Brehm, ut supra.

Herodias alba (Linn.), Hartl. J. f. Orn. 1854, p. 157.

Ardea melanorhyncha, Wagler, fide Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 117 (1857).

Egretta modesta (Gray), Bp. ut supra (1857).

Egretta syrmatophora (Gould), Bp. ut supra (1857).

Egretta melanorhyncha (Wagl.), Bp. ut supra (1857).

Egretta rueppelli, Bp., fide Gieb. Thes. Orn. i. p. 409 (1872).

"Herodias torra, Buch. Hamilt.," Hume, Stray Feathers, vi. p. 472 (1878).

Htron aigrette, French; Airone bianco maggiore, Italian; Silber-Reiher, Schnee-Eeiher,

German; de groote Zilverreiger, Dutch; Hvit Hager, Swedish; Bela'ia Tschapoura,

Russian.

Figurce notabiles.
D'Aubenton, PL Enl. 886 ; Werner, Atlas, Coureurs, pi. 25 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 42.

fig. 5 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 222 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 276 ; id. B. of G Brit.

iv. p. 22; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pi. 190.

<S ad. ptil. (Est. candidus: nuchse plumis elongatis, plumis in jugulo imo elongatis et lanceolatis, plumis in
dorso imo longissimis, decompositis, filainentosis : rostro nigro : loris et orbitis nudis flavo-viridibus :
iride flava, : pedibus fuscis, tibiis nudis pallidioribus.

232

2

Ad. ptil. Mem. ptilosi sestivali similis sed plumis dorsalibus longissimis nullis, rostro flavo nee nigro.

Adult Male in summer (Lower Volga) . Entire plumage pure white, the feathers on the hind crown rather
elongated, and those on the lower neck also elongated and pointed; from the lower back a large bunch
of filiform hair-like plumes extends beyond the tail; bill black; bare space round the eye greenish
yellow ; iris yellow ; legs dark brown, the bare tibia paler. Total length about 40 inches, gape 6 - 4,
wing 16'3, tail 6'6, tarsus 7'2, bare tibia 4'0, middle toe with claw 4"3.

Adult Female. Resembles the male, but is a trifle smaller in size.

Adult in winter (Butrinto) . Differs from the adult in summer in having the bill yellow, and in lacking the
long hair-like plumes on the back.

Young. Resembles the adult in winter, but has the legs paler and of a yellowish tinge, and the bill is much
paler yellow.

This, the largest of our White Herons, inhabits South-eastern Europe, Western Asia, and North
Africa, a smaller form, which I cannot consider specifically distinct, being found in South Africa,
India, Eastern Asia, and the Malay archipelago down to Australia. In America it is replaced by
a nearly allied, but perfectly distinct, species, Ardea egretta, which is smaller in size, and has
the bill yellow at all seasons of the year.

The Great White Heron has been obtained on several occasions in Great Britain at different
seasons of the year. Mr. Harting (Handb. Brit. B. p. 147) enumerates sixteen instances of its
occurrence ; but several of them are open to doubt, as the birds were only seen and not obtained.
Willughby appears to have been the first to record it as a British species ; and Latham and
Montagu cite its occurrence in Cumberland and Devon ; Yarrell states that one was shot on the
Isis, Oxfordshire, in September 1833 ; and Mr. Strickland writes that one was killed on Hornsea
Mere, Yorkshire, in the winter of 1821, and presented to him some years after; another was
shot near Beverley, Yorkshire, about 1835 or 1836, and passed into the possession of Mr. James
Hall, of Scarborough, near that town ; and one is in the collection of Mr. Eoljambe, of Osberton,
labelled as having been obtained near there. It is said to have occurred in Norfolk ; and
Mr. J. H. Gurney purchased a specimen of the late Mr. Thurtell, of Eaton, which is said to have
been killed in that county. Messrs. Sheppard and Whitear state that they saw one on the banks
of the Stour, in Suffolk, in October 1823 or 1824, and that one was observed on the Oakley
shores in the spring, and one subsequently on the banks of the Orwell. One is said to have
been seen on Romney Marsh, Kent, and one near Penzance in February 1866 ; one in the
collection of Dr. Strong, of Peterborough, is said to have been obtained in Thorney Fen,
Cambridgeshire, in June 1849; and Robson (Zool. 1849, p. 4169) records the occurrence of one
at Buttermere, Cumberland. Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., enumerates (Ramb. Nat. p. 262) six
instances of its having been obtained or seen, beyond the sixteen cited by Mr. Harting (several
being enumerated above) ; so that it has every claim to be included in the British list.

There are several records of this Heron having been seen in Scotland ; but these are naturally
open to doubt, and, so far as I can ascertain, there is only one undoubted instance of Ardea alba
having been obtained there, viz. that of an example in full plumage which was killed in

2, o 3

Haddingtonshire on the 9th June 1840, and is preserved in the collection at Tyninghame House,
East Lothian. Mr. Robert Gray says that on referring to Mr. Dunn's copy of the ' Historia
Naturalis Orcadensis,' one of the authors has stated in manuscript that two specimens were met
with on the island of Damsay, in Orkney.

It has not occurred in Greenland or Iceland, but has been met with on several occasions in
Scandinavia. Dr. Sundstrom informs me that at least five examples have been killed in Sweden,
viz. one at Vesteras in November 1856, one near Nykoping on the 24th October 1868, one in
Ostergothland on the coast, one late in May 1876 at Bjornd, and one late in May 1877 near
Eskilstuna ; and to this I may add that one is said to have been obtained in Linnseus's time at
Araslof, in Skane. It has not been observed in Finland ; but Sabanaeff remarks that it is said to
nest in the Shadrinsk district, in Central Russia ; and Artzibascheff says that it is common on
the lakes of the Sarpa, especially on those in the southern districts, where it nests. He remarks
that there is a great individual variation in size. According to Mr. Taczanowski this Egret is
very rare in Poland. There is a specimen in the Warsaw Museum which was killed in Lomza.

Referring to its range in Germany, Von Homeyer (who found it breeding in Silesia) writes
(J. f. 0. 1863, p. 440) : — " Naumann did not know of any instance of this Heron having nested in
Germany ; and, according to him, its breeding-places are to be found further to the east and
south-east — Southern Siberia, Persia, and Syria, the districts of the Black Sea and the Caspian,
the Lower Danube, Southern Greece and the surrounding islands, Hungary, and Galicia being
the chief resorts of our bird during the breeding-season ; whilst it is rarely met with in Northern
Africa, especially the north-western parts, in Spain, Southern France, and Italy. In South Ger-
many it is even a rare occurrence to see it during the time of migration, whilst its appearance in
Central and North Germany creates quite a sensation. It is more frequently met with in Austria
and Silesia, coming over from Syrmia, Southern Hungary, and the Military Frontier. It has as
yet never been observed in Anhalt; one specimen was obtained near Berlin in 1824, and another
near Erfurt. According to H. Schlegel one specimen of the Great White Heron was killed in
the Netherlands in 1855." Its occurrence in Belgium does not appear to be quite authenticated ;
but it was obtained near Metz by Mr. Holandre, and also at Lindres. Baillon cites its occur-
rence near Abbeville ; and one was obtained on the Somme. It has frequently been killed near
the mouth of the Rhone, though not in breeding-dress.

I do not find it recorded from Portugal ; and it is very rare in Spain. Mr. Saunders states
that he saw one in the Coto de Donana on the 2nd May ; but Colonel Irby writes (Orn. Str. Gibr.
p. 184) : — " On the Spanish side I never saw one, or heard of a specimen being obtained. I
know the bird well, having shot them both in the Crimea and in India, and could not well be
mistaken ; and although seeing is believing, seeing only is not sufficient evidence to include a
bird in a list." I find that Bailly cites two occurrences in Savoy — one at the end of the winter
of 1847, on the shores of the Lac du Bourget, and another on the 13th April 1849, on the
Isere, near Montinelian, two others having been seen with this latter bird. In Italy it is of
somewhat rare occurrence in the northern provinces ; but it is not at all uncommon in Sardinia
and Sicily in the large marshes. Mr. A. B. Brooke records it as being very common in winter
on the former island ; Mr. C. Bygrave Wharton saw one at Bigulia, in Corsica, on the 30th
April ; and Schembri states that it is a rare visitor to Malta.

6b

234

In Southern Germany it only becomes numerous in the extreme south-eastern districts.
Dr. Fritsch says (J. f. O. 1871, p. 391) that it is extremely rare in Bohemia, where it usually
appears in spring, apparently from Hungary. One was obtained near Frauenberg on the 20th
April 1831, one near Sichelsdorf on the 3rd of April 1849; and it has occurred at Weisswasser,
Podebrad, Wittingau, and the Bestrever lakes near Frauenberg. In Transylvania, Messrs.
Danford and Harvie-Brown write (Ibis, 1875, p. 424), it is " only found during migration, there
being no record of its having bred in the country. We heard from Herr Buda that there were
many in the Hatzeg district this year after we left. The specimen in the Klausenburg Museum
was shot at Apahida in November 1867, as recorded by Herr Otto." It breeds in many of the
larger marshes of Hungary, and the countries skirting the Danube, this portion of Europe
being its head quarters; and Messrs. Elwes and Buckley remark (Ibis, 1870, p. 333), it is "very
common in the marshes of Macedonia, where we have seen as many as fourteen together. The
great size and snowy plumage of this White Heron make it a very conspicuous object among the
tall reeds, or when flapping slowly along above them. We cannot say whether it breeds here ;
but in Bulgaria, though not so numerous as in Macedonia, it certainly does." According to
Dr. Kriiper it is only sparingly found in Greece, not breeding there, being, as a rule, only
a winter visitant ; and Lord Lilford writes of it (Ibis, 1860, p. 346) : — " Common in Epirus in
winter, particularly at Butrinto. Not nearly so difficult of approach as most of its congeners,
although I never observed it to skulk amongst the reeds and aquatic herbage, as Ardea cinerea
often does. I could not find out that it ever remains to breed in Epirus ; but the natives are
so singularly unobservant of all birds, except the Anatidse, that it is difficult to extract any
information from them."

In Asia Minor it is said by Dr. Kriiper to be commoner than in Greece ; but Canon Tristram
remarks that in Palestine he found it scarcer than Ardea garzetta, and very wary. It is, he adds,
a spring and summer visitant to that country. It is widely distributed in Africa ; and there, as in
Asia, is a smaller form differing from the European bird in nothing but size, in which it agrees
with Chinese examples. In North Africa, however, the large form is found ; but where the two
meet I am unable to decide. Captain Shelley writes (B. of Egypt, p. 267), " The Great White
Heron is plentiful in Lower Egypt and the Fayoom. On lake Mareotis I have frequently
observed very large flocks of this species wading in the shallows at a considerable distance from
the land; and on Birket el Korn, in the Fayoom, I have seen single specimens on several
occasions ; but, as it is a very shy bird, I was never able to approach within shot. I have also
seen it in the collections of other travellers from Egypt." Von Heuglin believes that it breeds
in the Nile delta. He observed it in April and May on the Tana lake and in Wadla; and
Lefebvre met with it late in the latter month at Adowa, in Abyssinia. In the winter months it
is common on Lake Menzaleh and throughout the Blue- and White-Nile districts, being even
more numerous in Abyssinia, where it occurs to an altitude of 9000-10,000 feet. It is said to
be tolerably common in Algeria, but, Loche says, is more frequently seen about the lakes of the
province of Constantine than about those of Oran. Canon Tristram writes (Ibis, 1860, p. 77) : —
" Three or four of these magnificent Herons used to resort to the salt lake of Waregla. Again I
met with them at Dzouia, Temacin, Tamerna, and Tuggurt, but always in small flocks, and very
shy. Never found, like their congeners, in the ditches or under palm trees, but in the wide, open

235

marshes and chotts, where they were extremely wary. They are only winter visitants to the
Sahara. I was informed that they breed near Benzert, on the Tunisian coast, but did not see
them there." Colonel Irby saw this species once on the lakes of Ras-Doura, on the 26th of
April, but did not succeed in shooting it. Mr. Godman records its occurrence in the Azores ;
but Dr. Dohrn says that it has been incorrectly said to occur in the Cape-Verd Islands, as Ardea
garzetta is the only "White Heron found there.

On the continent of Africa, however, it is found, subject only to variation in size, down to
the Cape colony. Mr. C. J. Andersson sent home a specimen, obtained either in Damara or
Ovampo Land, in breeding-dress ; and Mr. Layard writes (B. of S. Afr. p. 308) : — " A pair of
these most lovely Egrets, male and female, have been shot at different times in Zeekoe Vley,
between Cape-town and Simon's Bay. I have myself seen white Egrets wading about that piece
of water, and also on the marsh nearer to Kalk Bay, but always too far off to determine the
species. I have also seen white Egrets on the marsh below the Observatory, and on the rocks at
Bobben Island. They are, however, generally so wary as to be unapproachable. Mr. Atmore
tells me it is common at the Knysna, but very shy, and breeds on a small rock in the sea, east
of the Heads ; he was too late (December) for eggs."

It has been recorded from the Lydenburg District, the Matabili country, and other parts of
South and South-east Africa ; but it is rather difficult to verify the various records of its occur-
rence, as another species, Ardea intermedia, is also found there.

Subject only to variation in size, the Great White Heron is found in Asia as far east as
China, and southward down to Australia, and, in all probability, to New Zealand also ; but,
owing to the want of a sufficiently large series of specimens to examine, I am compelled, to a
large extent, to depend on the notes of the various collectors who have explored the different
countries. I give below a few particulars relative to the variation in size of examples from
different parts of the globe, from which it will be seen that, as a rule, Asiatic specimens run
smaller than our European bird ; but I cannot look on them as being specifically distinct.

The present species is found on the Caspian ; Major St. John states that he saw it every
year on the Kara agatch river, west of Shiraz, where there is a colony of these birds ; and
Mr. Blanford met with it in Baluchistan, where, however, it is not common. Mr. S. Scully,
writing on the ornithology of Eastern Turkestan, says (Stray Feathers, iv. p. 196): — "In winter
this species was more common about Kashghar (where four birds were shot) and Yarkand than
Ardea cinerea. It was never seen in spring or summer, having then, it was reported, migrated
northwards, towards Aksu, to breed. It frequented marshy places and the banks of small
streams, feeding on fish. The Turki name for this species (which Mr. Hume informs me is the
large European form, and not the Lesser White Heron of India) is Ak Wear, ' White Heron.' "
Dr. Jerdon writes: — "The Large Egret is distributed throughout India to Ceylon, extending, if
Gould's syrmatophorus be rightly identified with this species, from Europe through most of Asia
and Africa to Australia. It is, of course, most abundant in the better-watered districts, but is
found everywhere feeding in rivers and tanks and roosting on trees. It breeds, in company, on
trees, often in, or close to some village, making the usual nest of sticks, and laying three or four
eggs of a bluish green colour. This species is said to make its nest in Europe among reeds ; but
this is quite opposed to the habits of all the Egrets."

6b2

236

It is recorded from Ceylon by Mr. Holdsworth and Captain Legge ; and it has been said to
have occurred in the Andaman Islands ; but the late Lord Tweeddale includes only Ardea inter-
media among the birds found there. It appears, however, to occur in Burmah and the Tenasserim
provinces, and is common in China, in the southern provinces of which, Mr. Swinhoe says, it is a
resident, breeding in the northern portions of the empire. It probably occurs in South-east
Siberia; for Schrenck saw a feather of an Egret which was shot near the NicholaiefFsk Post,
and which he believes to have been Ardea alia ; but he never heard any thing further respecting
its occurrence there ; while Dr. Eadde says that it occurs in the Central Argunj valleys, where he
observed it at Kailassutui in June 1856, and in April on the Lower Udir river. He does not,
however, appear to have obtained a specimen. How far the present species occurs in the Malay
archipelago I cannot with certainty state ; for Ardea intermedia appears to be the species usually
met with there ; but Ardea alba appears to be found in Australia.

Mr. Gould (I. c.) described the Australian bird as distinct; but Blyth (Ibis, 1865, p. 36)
says that it does not differ from true Ardea alba ; and in this view Mr. Gould subsequently
concurred. He states that it is sparingly dispersed over the Australian continent. He met with
it near the mouth of the Hunter, but more frequently on the banks of the Clarence and other
rivers less frequented by civilized man. He also observed it in Tasmania, in the vicinity of
George's Biver and other unfrequented streams to the northward of the island. As regards the
species found in New Zealand I am in considerable doubt. Dr. Finsch (J. f. O. 1872, p. 171)
says that the New-Zealand bird cannot be distinguished from the American Ardea egretta ; but
the measurements given by Buller differ widely from those of the American bird, and agree much
more closely with those of European examples of Ardea alba ; but he distinctly states that the
New-Zealand bird never has the bill black in the summer, but yellow at all seasons of the year.

In general habits the present species resembles the common Heron ; but it is slighter and
more elegant in appearance, and may at once be distinguished by its pure white colour. Like
the common Heron, it is generally to be found in marshy places or on the edge of streams,
waiting for small fish, often standing in water that reaches up to the tibia. It usually stands
more erect than the common Heron, and looks more slender; and when on the wing it also
appears longer ; for its legs stretch out further behind it than do those of that species, and its
Avings appear longer and more slender ; but otherwise its flight closely resembles the flight of
that bird, though it is rather stronger and quicker on the wing. It is companionable, especially
during the breeding-season, not only towards others of its own species but also towards other
Herons. It is said to become very tame when kept in confinement, and will consort with
domestic poultry. Its call-note is said to be a harsh deep rar, uttered now and again, though not
often. Its food consists chiefly of small fish, but also of frogs, aquatic insects, worms, mice, and
possibly also of young birds. It usually fishes during the daytime, and not, so far as I can
ascertain, by night, and resorts to both running and still water in search of prey.

It nests on islands and in large morasses, its nest being placed on trees, and not, as a rule,
like the Lesser Egret's, on the ground amongst the reeds, though it is occasionally said to breed
amongst the dense reed-thickets in the large morasses of the Banat.

Its nest is placed on one of the strong branches of a tree, and is constructed of dry twigs,
dry reeds and flags, and is lined with finer leaves of aquatic plants ; and the eggs, usually three or

237

four in number, though I have one clutch of five, are pale greenish blue in colour. Specimens
in my collection, from Hungary, vary in size from 2-^f by Iff to 2ff by Iff inches.

Although, as a rule, the present species does not breed in Germany, yet there is undoubted
evidence to show that it has nested in Lower Silesia (Nieder-Schlesien) ; for Alexander von
Homeyer has published (J. f. O. 1863, pp. 440 -447) some interesting notes respecting a pair of
these Herons which nested in a large forest about a German mile north-east of Glogau in 1863.
In this forest there is a heronry of about 150 nests of Ardea cinerea, on old fir trees 70 to
80 feet high ; and close to the edge of this heronry a pair of Ardea alba nested also on a fir tree
within about eight paces from the nearest Heron's nest. The nest was slightly built, and could
almost be seen through, and was placed on one of the medium-sized trees. He visited the
heronry at various times between the 31st May and 28th June, on which latter day he found
that the young, three in number, were hatched, and were then probably several days old. Their
cry he compares to the syllables kekkekkek, kekkekkek, like that of the young common Heron,
but clearer, and not so harsh in tone. On the 22nd July the largest of the young birds had left
the nest and flown to the nearest adjacent tree, and as Von Homeyer had to leave the neigh-
bourhood, he had it shot and stuffed, and sent it to the Berlin Museum ; and subsequently both
the remaining young birds and one of the old ones were shot, although the forester and others
promised to protect them. The remaining parent bird left that part of the country early in
August, probably disgusted at the treatment its family and mate had met with.

So far as I can judge from the series of specimens I have examined, and from the various
information I have collected together, there are only three good species of the larger White
Herons which lack the nuchal crest, viz. Ardea alba, Ardea egretta, and Ardea intermedia ; and
in this view I agree with Mr. Hume, who has written some excellent notes on the White Herons
of India (Stray Feathers, vi. pp. 472-480), except that he subdivides Ardea alba into two species,
and grants the smaller form specific rank under the name of Herodias torra, Buch. Hamilton.
This form differs only in size, and, like the larger European bird, has the bill black in summer
and yellow in winter ; but, according to Mr. Hume, the tarsus is darker than in specimens from
Europe, though I think that little stress can be put on this circumstance.

It appears that examples of Ardea alba from various localities differ in size as follows : —

Lower Volga and Albania: gape 6-0-64, wing 16- 1-16-3, tail 64-6"5, tarsus 7'0-7-2, bare tibia 4-0-4-2.

Caspian Sea: gape 5 - 85, wing 16-2, tail 6 4, tarsus 68, bare tibia 3-5.

Syria : gape 6 - 0, wing 160, tail 6'5, tarsus 7 - 0, bare tibia 4 - 0.

Pagani river, Africa : culmen 4'4, wing 13'8, tarsus 5 - 7, bare tibia 3 - 5.

India (fide Hume, 1. c.) : bill 3-72-4-6, wing 13-2-15-2, tail 5"6-6-7, tarsus 5-7-7-0, bare tibia 3-35-4-8.

Andamans and Tenasserim (fide Hume) : bill 4-0-445, wing 133-150, tail 54-6'2, tarsus 5 - 6-6 - 3,

bare tibia 345-4 - 3.
China : culmen 3-9-4-5, wing 13-8-15-0, tail 5-6-64, tarsus 5'5-6-8, bare tibia 34-4-5.
Australia (fide Hume) : bill 4"3, wing 13'0, tail 5'0, tarsus 5 - 3, bare tibia 3 - 62.

Whether the New-Zealand bird should be separated from Ardea alba or not I cannot, as
above stated, venture to decide ; but certainly it differs in size from Ardea egretta, though it is
said to have the bill yellow at all seasons of the year, like that species. Buller gives the
dimensions as follows — bill 5-0, wing 17 - 0, tail 7 - 0, tarsus 6 - 25, bare tibia 4-0 ; and Mr. A. O.

238

8

Hume states that a female from Otago, New Zealand, examined by him, measured — bill 4 - 5,
wing 15-2, tail 6*8, tarsus 5 - 5, bare tibia 3 - 99.

Ardea egretta, the American Great White Egret, differs from Ardea alba in being smaller in
size and in having the bill yellow at all seasons of the year, with occasionally a little brown
coloration at the tip. I have measured the series of examples from Central and South America
in the collection of Messrs. Salvin and Godman, and find the variation in size as follows —
gape 4-8-5-7, wing 14 , 2-15 , 6, tarsus 5-5-6-3, bare tibia 3-6-4-6. A larger form is stated by
Baird to inhabit the coast of Southern California, and probably the Rio Grande of Texas, which
he refers to under the name of Herodias egretta, var. calif ornica, and gives the measurements as
— wing 17*0, tarsus 6-7, bill 5 - 0. I doubt, however, if this large form inhabits Southern Texas,
as a specimen I obtained near San Antonio, in that State, measures — gape 5-0, wing 14-0,
tail, 5-5, tarsus 5"6, bare tibia 3T.

Ardea intermedia, Wagler (Isis, 1829, p. 659), which inhabits South Africa, India, China,
and the Malay archipelago, comes very close to Ardea egretta ; and it is uncertain whether these
two species should not be united. Like Ardea egretta it is said to have the bill yellow, tipped
with blackish brown, at all seasons of the year, but is smaller than that species. Hume gives
the measurements as follows, viz.: — from Continental India, bill 2-68-3-09, wing 11-15-12-91,
tail 5-0-5-9, tarsus 4-1-4-66, bare tibia 2-35-3-1; 'and from the Andamans, bill 2-81-3-18,
wing 11-15-12-0, tail 4-5-5-2, tarsus 4-35-4-5, bare tibia 2-4-2-8.

Two specimens from China in Mr. Seebohm's collection measure — culmen 2-85, wing 11-7
and 12-2, tail 5 - l and 5-2, tarsus 4 - 3 and 4-4, bare tibia 2-6 and 2 - 7 ; and one, a female, from
Java, measures — culmen 3-0, wing 1T7, tail 4 - 8, tarsus 4 - 0, bare tibia 2-4.

I have not examined a specimen from South Africa ; but Mr. Ayres gives (Ibis, 1877, p. 349)
the measurements of a female from the Transvaal as — gape 3 - 5, wing 11-75, tail 5'5, tarsus 4-5.

The specimens of Ardea alba figured are the adult birds in summer and in winter dress
above described, and are in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, Sad. Lower Volga, summer (Stader). b, <$ ad. Caspian Sea. c, ad. Butrinto, winter of 1869 {Hanbury-
Barclay) .

a. Syria (Hemprich fy Ehrenberg).

a, ad. Pagani river, Africa (Dr. Kirk) .

E Mus. Berol.

E Mus. G. E. Shelley.

E Mus. H. Seebohm.

a, 3 ad. Canton, China, April 1860. b, d 1 . Formosa, c, $ . Hongkong, April 1860. d. Amoy, November
1866. e. Hainan, February 1868. f,<$. Ningpo, August 1872. g. Hankow, winter (R. Swinhoe).
h. Shanghai, February 24th, 1874 {A. Michie).

399

i
i

--.•-*?;.;

■->..

1 (j.Keul emails Eth.

HanV.a

LITTLE EGRET.

AR DEA G AR Z ETTA

23^>

AEDEA GAEZETTA.

(LESSER EGRET.)

\Ardea egretta, Briss. Orn. v. p. 431 (1760).

Ardea garzetta, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 237 (1766).

Ardea niuea, S. G. Gmel. Reise d. Russl. i. p. 164 (1770).

Ardea santodactylos, S. G. Gmel. Eeise d. Russl. iii. p. 253 (1774).

Ardea nivea, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 640 (1788).

Ardea xanthodactyla, Rafinesque-Schmaltz, Caratteri, p. 5 (1810).

Herodias garzetta (L.), Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 559.

Herodias jubata, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 586 (1831).

Ardea nigrirostris, J. E. Gray, Zool. Misc. p. 19 (1831).

Ardea orientalis, J. E. Gray, op. cit. p. 20 (1831 ).

Egretta garzetta (L.), Bp. Comp. List, p. 47 (1838).

Egretta orientalis (Gray), Bp. ut supra (1838).

Ardea nigripes, Temminck. Man. d'Orn. iv. p. 377 (1840).

Erodius garzetta (L.), Macg. Man. Brit. B. ii. p. 135 (1842).

%Egretta brachyrhynchos, L. Brehm, Naumannia, 1855, p. 290.

% Egretta lindermayeri, L. Brehm, ut supra.

Egretta jubata, L. Brehm, ut supra.

Garzetta egretta, Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. iii. p. 118 (1857).

Garzetta orientalis (Gray), Bp. torn. cit. p. 119 (1857).

Garzetta nigrijtes (Temm.), Bp. torn. cit. p. 119 (1857).

Garzetta nivea (Gmel.), Tacz. Bull. Soc. Zool. de France, 1877, p. 159.

Heron garzette, French ; Garza blanea, Spanish ; Garzetta, Italian ; Agrett, Maltese ; Beiadi,
Arabic ; Bou-fala, Bou-bliga, Moorish ; Seidenreiher, kleiner Silberreiher, German ; de
kleine Zilverreiger, Dutch ; Malaya bela'ia Tschapoura, Russian.

Figures notabiles.

Werner, Atlas, Coureurs, pi. 26 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 42. fig. 2 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl.
taf. 223; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 277; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 23; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl.
pi. 191.

d ad. ptil. cest. candidus : nucha? plumis duabus angustis longissimis, juguli plumis elongatis angustatis : dorsi
plumis lcragissimis filamentoso-decompositis : rostro pedibusque nigriSj digitis flavis : loris nudis
violaceis : iride pallide flava\

Ad. ptil. Mem. candidus, dorsi et nucbae plumis elongatis nullis.

Adult Male in spring (Seville, Spain, May 1869). Entire plumage pure white; from the nape two narrow

6A

240

long feathers spring, these being over seven inches long ; a bunch of elongated feathers spring from the
lower throat, and are slightly tinged with cream-colour ; and from the lower back a large bunch of
elongated recurved hair-like plumes extend beyond the tail ; bill black, except at the base of the lower
mandible, where it is yellowish grey ; bare space about the eye lead-blue ; iris pale yellow ; legs black ;
the feet tinged with yellow, soles yellow. Total length about 22 inches, culmen 3"5, gape 4'2, wing 11/0,
tail 4'5, tarsus 4"4, bare portion of tibia 2"5.

Adult Female. Resembles the male, but is rather smaller in size.

Adult in winter. Differs from the adult in summer in lacking the dorsal and occipital plumes.

Young. Pure white, the feathers on the lower neck rather elongated, but lacking the hair-like dorsal plumes
and the long nuchal feathers ; legs paler, and tinged with yellowish ; bare lores olivaceous.

In Europe the Lesser Egret inhabits only the southern countries, being a rare straggler in the
northern and central portions, but ranges far south in Africa, and is found right across the
continent of Asia, and southward down to the Malay archipelago and Australia.

In Great Britain it has certainly occurred on several occasions. Mr. Harting cites (Handb.
of Brit. B. p. 148) ten instances of its occurrence in England, one in Ireland, and one in Scotland,
but some of these are doubtful ; and Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., says (Rambl. Nat. p. 285) that of
all the recorded occurrences, five only appear to be above suspicion ; and he expresses great doubt
respecting the authenticity of the example in the Wisbeach Museum, said to have been killed at
Sleaford, Anwick, South Lincolnshire, in December 1851. Mr. Robert Gray does not include
this species in his work on the birds of the west of Scotland. The only occurrence on record in
Ireland is of the one said to have been obtained in December 1788 by the Rev. J. Elgee, of
Wexford ; but the specimen has long been missing, and it is impossible to state with certainty
whether it really was a Lesser Egret.

It has not been obtained in Norway, Sweden, or Finland, and is very rare in Central Russia.
According to Severtzoff it has once been killed in the Tamboff Government ; and Artzibascheff
refers to it as being rare on the Sarpa, but much commoner at the mouth of the Volga.
Lichtenstein states that it has been obtained in Courland ; and Taczanowski says that it is
seldom seen in Poland.

It is a very rare straggler to North Germany ; but Von Homeyer says (J. f. O. 1870, p. 230)
that it has been obtained on several occasions near the Lake of Trachenberg, on the property of
Prince Hatzfeld. Dr. Rey states that it has been once killed on the Salziger See ; and Gloger
records its occurrence in Silesia.

It has been met with in Holland as a rare straggler, and has once occurred in Luxemburg.
In the north of Fiance, according to Degland and Gerbe, it is very seldom seen; but in the
southern departments it becomes commoner, and there is little doubt that it breeds in the
Camargue. Lacroix says that it occurs on passage in the French Pyrenees, where he has seen
it in April and May, and even as late as June, but never in the winter season. Mr. Howard
Saunders, who remarks that it occurs in suitable localities throughout Spain, adds (Ibis, 1871,
p. 391), it is " abundant in the Cotos of Donana, where it doubtless breeds ; but I have never been
able to obtain its eggs, owing to the unexampled drought which has prevailed for three successive

241

3

springs, viz. 1868, 1869, 1870;" and Colonel Irby writes (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 184), "the Little
Egret is the least common of the small Herons in Andalucia, and, as Favier observes, some
remain very late, as I have seen and obtained them on the 17th of November. The greater
quantity arrive about the middle of April, and linger here and there on their route, gradually
passing on to their breeding-places on the borders of the marisma. They nest on trees, in some
seasons, near Rocio, but are so molested that they change their ground frequently. When on
the wing, and within a short distance, the black legs and bill are very apparent ; and this, added
to the fact of their being smaller than Herodias alba, serves as a good distinguishing mark for
the species." Von Homeyer says that it is common near Valencia, and he met with it on several
occasions on the Prat and the Albufera, in the Balearic Isles.

Passing eastward, again, I find it recorded by Bailly as occurring from time to time in Savoy,
on the banks of the Rhone, the Isere, and on the lakes of Bourget and Marches ; and in Italy
it is said to be common on the spring and autumn passage ; it is very abundant in Sardinia in
winter, and numerous in Sicily in spring, some remaining to breed on both islands. In Malta,
according to Mr. C. A. Wright (Ibis, 1864, p. 143), the Lesser Egret is common in the spring
and autumn, and large flocks are often seen passing in company with Purple Herons.

In Southern Germany the present species is not generally found until one reaches the
Hungarian frontier. Dr. Fritsch states (J. f. 0. 1871, p. 391) that in Bohemia it is a much rarer
straggler than Ardea alba ; and there is, he adds, a specimen in the Frauenberg Museum which
was killed on the lake at Rosenberg in 1858. The late Mr. E. Seidensacher informed me that
it was killed near Cilli, in Styria, in May and early in September 1856. In Transylvania,
Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown write (Ibis, 1875, p. 425), it is " rare. It is reported to
have nested near Felvincz. We saw a specimen which had been killed this year at Maros,
Vasarhely, and received one shot at Hatzeg. Herr Csato says they visit the Strell valley in
little flocks in May and June." In the marshes of Hungary and in suitable localities along the
Danube, as well as on the islands in that river, the present species is by no means uncommon
during the summer ; and I often saw it below Belgrade. According to Messrs. Elwes and Buckley
(Ibis, 1870, p. 334) it " arrives in large numbers on the Danube about the first week in May, and
breeds in colonies in company with the Squacco and Purple Herons. One of the large islands
below Rustchuk is a great breeding-place for Herons ; but they had not arrived on the 2nd of
May. In a dense thicket of willows, at this time of the year four feet deep in water, there are
hundreds of nests ; and a friend who visited the same spot a month later found them all tenanted
by three or four different species of Herons."

Dr. Kriiper says that it is commoner in Greece than Ardea alba, and does not winter there.
It arrives in considerable numbers late in March, and remains several weeks on its way. In the
Cyclades it is a migrant, and is numerous from September to the end of April in Albania; and,
according to Lord Lilford, it is " very common in winter on the coasts of Epirus, in which
province some few remain to breed. I observed this species on the Bojana river and the Lake
of Scutari, in Albania, in great numbers in August 1857. The birds of this species which
frequent the shores of the Bay of Butrinto in the winter, and spend the day in wading about the
marshes, collect their forces regularly about sunset, and fly in a compact body to the jungles at
the head of the lake, where they roost. They appeared to pursue exactly the same course every

6a 2

242

evening ; and I used always to consider their appearance in a body as a sign that it was time to
take up my post for shooting Ducks in a small marshy pool between the proper right of the
Butrinto river and the rocks which shut in the valley to the north. The Egrets almost inva-
riably flew over this pool from west to east, and generally preceded the arrival of the first flight
of Ducks by about ten minutes."

In Southern Russia it is by no means uncommon. Mr. Goebel says that it breeds in the
marshes of Sokolow, in the Uman district, but in quite inaccessible places. In the autumn it is
found in pairs on the smaller ponds. In the summer of 1867 several were seen during the
summer: in 1868 the last was observed on the 2nd October, in 1869 the first on the 10th April,
and the last on the 27th September. It occurs in Asia Minor, where Mr. Danford observed it
on some small marshes to the north of the Ala-dagh ; and Canon Tristram found it common in
Palestine, but scattered and not very sociable. In North-east Africa, according to Captain
Shelley, it is abundant both in Egypt and Nubia, " and is a resident in those countries through-
out the year. It is usually to be met with singly by the edge of the water, and is equally partial
to both the liver and pools, feeding almost exclusively on fish. Early in April it begins to put
on its breeding-plumage." Von Heuglin says that it is very generally distributed in North-east
Africa ; and he believes that it must breed there, as he often saw it in full breeding-dress from
April to June. In autumn and winter he met with it singly and in large or small flocks along
the Nile, and in July and August on the shores of the Red Sea. Mr. Blanford found it common
on the coast of Abyssinia ; and he believes that he saw one in the highlands. Loche records it
as being a resident in Algeria, especially about the great lakes, and as far south as the Sebkhas.
Mr. Salvin met with it at Zana; and Canon Tristram found it (Ibis, 1860, p. 77) "universally
distributed in small numbers wherever a suitable locality exists, and frequenting familiarly the
gardens and ditches of the oases. It breeds in society on the lake Fetzara, and doubtless in
more southern marshes also." M. Favier says that it is not infrequent near Tangier, occurring
in small flights on passage. They pass north in April, returning in November and December ;
but some few remain there to breed.

Mr. Godman saw specimens of this Egret in a collection at Terceira, Azores, said to have
been killed on that island ; and he adds that it is also found in the Canaries ; and, according to
Dr. Dohrn, it is resident and abundant in all the Cape-Verd Islands. On the continent of Africa
it is found down to the Cape of Good Hope. Mr. Andersson writes (B. of Damara Land,
p. 290): — "This is a scarce bird in Damara and Great Namaqua Land, and very local; but it is
pretty common on the rivers flowing into and out of Lake Ngami, and it also occurs on the
Orange River. It associates in small flocks, and feeds on fish, lizards, frogs, Crustacea, and
aquatic insects." According to Mr. E. L. Layard (B. of S. Afr. p. 308), " specimens of this
beautiful Egret, both in winter and nuptial dress, have been procured in the neighbourhood of
Cape-town, also at Colesberg and at the Knysna. The stomachs of this species and Ardea
egretta which I have examined contained multitudes of small aquatic shells (Physopis africana
and Succinea delalandi)." Mr. Barratt obtained it near Pretoria and Potchefstrooui both in
winter and summer; and Mr. Ayres records it as being much more numerous about the swamps
of the Transvaal than it is in Natal.

According to Hartlaub the Little Egret of Madagascar, Ardea idee, Haiti. (Ardea elegans,

243

Hartl., and Ardea xanthopoda, Pelz.), is very distinct from Ardea garzetta; and I understand
from Professor Newton, who possesses a specimen, that it is very closely allied to the Indian
Ardea leucoptera.

In Asia it is very widely distributed ; Mr. Blanford saw many at Isfahan, in Persia ; and,
according to Dr. Jerdon, it is very abundant throughout India. Captain Butler found it numerous
in Northern Guzerat ■ and Messrs. Hume and Davison record it as being common in the plains
of Tenasserim. Lord Tweeddale received specimens from the Andamans. In Mr. Swinhoe's
collection are many specimens from China, Hainan, and Formosa ; and Pere David says that it is
abundant in China, and winters in the central and southern portions of that empire, being more
numerous in the south than Ardea alba, which, on the other hand, is the commonest species near
Pekin. Messrs. Blakiston and Pryer record it (Ibis, 1878, p. 224) as being a very common bird
in Southern Japan ; and they obtained one specimen in Yezo. It breeds in Japan in company
with Nycticorax griseus.

It is said to occur in Celebes, the Philippines, Moluccas, and New Guinea ; and Mr. Gould
records it from near Brisbane, in Australia. Mr. Gould separates the North-Australian species,
Ardea melano'pus, Wagl. (Herodias immaculata, Gould, B. of Austr. vi. p. 58), from Ardea
garzetta ; but Schlegel affirms that it cannot be considered specifically separable, and Hume says
that it only differs in being somewhat smaller in size and having much shorter feet. According
to Gould (Handb. B. Austr. ii. p. 304), this form is " a native of the northern portion of Australia,
and is extremely abundant in almost all parts of the Coburg Peninsula, both on the open sea-
beach and in the secluded parts of the harbour." In America the Lesser Egret is replaced by
Ardea candidissima, a perfectly distinct species.

In general habits the Lesser Egret differs but little from the other Herons. So far as I
have seen, it is eminently gregarious, and not only breeds in colonies, but is usually to be seen
at other seasons of the year in larger and smaller flocks. It is, compared with its allies, not
a shy bird, and may be stalked with comparative ease unless it has been subjected to much
persecution, when, as may be supposed, it becomes wary, and frequents such places as cannot
easily be approached. It is essentially a marsh-bird, preferring swampy localities well overgrown
with aquatic vegetation to any others ; and its nesting-haunts are often situated in almost inac-
cessible swamps. I have seen small flocks of this Egret on the Lower Danube, but was not able
to visit its breeding-haunts near Belgrade, where I was assured large numbers still breed ; but
on both occasions when I visited that town I was unable to arrange my journey so as to be there
during the breeding-season. I was told that it nests both on low trees and on the rushes, or on
the ground itself, constructing its nest of dry twigs and reed-stems, lining it with finer leaves of
aquatic plants, grass, and roots ; and the eggs, usually four in number, are deposited late in May
or early in June. In colour they are very pale greenish blue, unmarked ; and eggs in my collec-
tion, taken by Zelebor, in Servia, on the 2nd of June, measure from Iff by 1^§ to If-J by l^j
inch in size, and are almost pure oval in shape, tapering but slightly towards one end.

The food of the Lesser Egret, like that of its ally Ardea alba, consists of small fishes,
frogs, worms, aquatic insects and their larvse, but especially of small fish when obtainable in
abundance.

The various species of White Herons have been not a little confused, and the synonymy is

244

therefore by no means easy to unravel; but, with what material I have been able to collect
together, I have done my best to work out the synonymy of those which occur within my limits ;
and it is satisfactory to find that all I have seen tends to confirm the views expressed by
Professor Schlegel in his article on the Herons in the 'Mus. Pays-Bas.' He appears to be
quite correct in stating that there is no specific difference between examples of Ardea garzetta
from Europe, Asia, Africa, the Malay archipelago, and Australia. From Ardea candidissima it
is easily recognizable, as that bird has a full occipital crest, about as long as the bill, instead of
two or three long pendent feathers. In Eastern Asia, however, there is a species closely allied
to the American Ardea candidissima, viz. Ardea eulophotes, Swinhoe (Ibis, 1860, p. 64), but
which seems to be quite distinct. I am indebted to Mr. Seebohm for the loan of the type,
which is in full nuptial dress, and differs from Ardea garzetta in that plumage in having a thick
bunch of elongated feathers on the occiput, in having the pectoral plumes thicker and shorter,
and the dorsal plumes also shorter, and in having an orange-yellow bill, becoming flesh-coloured
and purplish on the lores and round the eye ; iris white ; legs greenish black ; feet olive-brown,
patched in places with yellow. Total length 27 inches, wing 9 - 25, gape 3 - 75, tarsus 3 - 0, bare
tibia 1*75, middle toe 2 - 25, its claw 0-25.

There is no very great difference in measurements of examples of the Lesser Egret from
different parts of the globe where it is found. Specimens I have examined vary as follows : —

Europe : culmen 3-2-3-5, wing 105-irO, tail 4-3-4-5, tarsus 4-2-4-4, bare tibia 2-3-2-5.

Egypt : culmen 3'3, wing 10'8, tail 4-2, tarsus 4 - 22, bare tibia 2-47.

Knysna, S. Africa : culmen 3 - 15, wing 10-10, tail 4-25, tarsus 4 - 25, bare tibia 232.

Pagani river, Africa: culmen 3-5-3 - 6, wing 108-iri, tail 4-0-4-5, tarsus 3-95-4-5, bare tibia 2 - 3-3-2.

China: culmen 3-0-3-4, wing 10-3-10-8, tail 4-1-4-5, tarsus 3-7-4-2, bare tibia 2-0-2-5.

Japan : culmen 3 - 15-3 - 3, wing 10 - 8, tail 4 - 3-4-5, tarsus 3-85—4-0, bare tibia 2 - 0-2 - l.

Java: culmen 3'15, wing 9'7, tail 3-8, tarsus 3'4, bare tibia l - 8.

Philippines : culmen 3'4, wing 10-9, tail 4 - 3, tarsus 3'95, bare tibia 2 - 4.

The specimens figured are an adult male, in full breeding-dress, in the foreground, and a
young bird, in winter dress, in the background.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens: —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, b, c? ? • Seville, Spain, May 1869. c. Egypt, winter, d. Knysna, S. Africa {Cutter). e, ? . Leyte,
Philippines, October 1877 [Everett) .

E Mus. G. E. Shelley.
a, b, c. Pagani river, Africa (Dr. Kirk) .

E Mus. H. Seebohm.

a. China, b. Hankow, China, winter, c. Amoy, April 1861. d. S.W. Formosa, 1861. e. Hainan, China,
February 1868 (R. Swinhoe). f. Ningpo, China, November 1872 (Dr. Mackenzie), g. Tokio, Japan.
h. Tokio, Japan, March 27th, 1877 (Pryer). i. Java.

400

J.G.KeuUma.ns lith,

BUFFBACKED HERON.

ARDEA BUBULCUS.

2.SQUACC0 HERON.

ARDEA RALL01DES.

Harin^r: uup

245

ARDEA BUBULCIJS.

(BUFF-BACKED HERON.)

Ardea Candida minor, Briss. Orn. v. p. 438 (1760).

% Ardea ibis, Linn, in Hasselq. Voy. & Trav. in the Levant, p. 198 (1766).

Tantalus ibis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 241 (1766, partim).

\Ardea lucida, Rafinesque-Schmaltz, Caratteri, p. 5 (1810).

Ardea cequinoctialis, Mont. Orn. Diet. Suppl. (1813, nee Linn.).

Ardea bubulcus, Audouin, Expl. somm. PI. Ois. de l'Egypte, i. p. 298 (1825).

Ardea russata, Wagl. Syst. Av. Ardea, no. 12 (1827, partim).

Lepterodas ibis, Ehr. Symb. Phys. fol. I (1828).

Ardea verany, Roux, Orn. Prov. ii. p. 316 (1829).

Egretta russata (Wagl.), Swains. Classif. of B. ii. p. 354 (1837).

Erodius russatus (Wagl.), Macgillivray, Man. Brit. B. ii. p. 135 (1842).

Ardeola russata (Wagl.), C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 294 (1855).

Ardeola bubulcus (Aud.), C. L. Brehm. op. cit. p. 295 (1855).

Buphus russatus (Wagl.), Heugl. Syst. Uebers. Vog. N.O.-Afr. p. 59 (1856).

Buphus coromandelicus, Heugl. ut supra (1856, nee Bodd.)

Bubulcus ibis, Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 125 (1857).

"Bubulcus ruficristata, Verr.," Bp. ut supra (1857).

Herodias russata (Wagl.), Salvin, Ibis, 1859, p. 357.

Herodias bubulcus (Aud.), G. C. Taylor, Ibis, 1860, p. 313.

" Ardea ruficristata, Verr.," Boch & Newton, Ibis, 1863, p. 170.

Ardea coromanda, G. R. Gray, Cat. Brit. B. p. 147(1863, nee Bodd.).

Buphus coromanda, E. C. Taylor, Ibis, 1867, p. 70 (nee Bodd.).

Ardea coromandra, Tristram, Ibis, 1868, p. 325 (nee Bodd.).

Heron garde-bceuf, French ; Garrapatosa, Purgabueyes, Spanish ; Airone guarda-buoi, Italian ;
Abu-Qerddn, Arabic ; Tair el bukkar, Moorish.

Figures notabiles.

Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 42. fig. 4 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 278 ; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 24 ;
Roux, Orn. Prov. ii. pi. 316.

d ad. ptil. eest. albus : pileo et nucha? plumis elongatis filaiuentosis rufescenti-isabellinis : dorso superiore
pallide cervino, dorsi iini plumis valde elongatis et gutture imo plumis minus elongatis rufescenti-
aurantiacis, filamentosis : rostro et pedibus flavis, loris et spatiis nudis anteocularibus viridi-flavis :
iride flavsi.

Ad. ptil. Idem, omnino albus isabellino tinctus : pileo pallide rufescenti-ochraceo : rostro et iride fiavis,
pedibus fuscis vel sordide nigricantibus.

2 . : 6

^ofwft Male in summer (Seville, May) . Feathers on the crown and nape elongated, hair-like, rich reddish-
buff in colour ; fore part of the back pale buffy yellow ; from the lower back a large bunch of hair-like
bright rufous-buff plumes spring, and extend beyond the tail ; and a similar but shorter bunch covers
the lower throat ; rest of the plumage pure white ; iris, beak, and legs yellow ; bare space in front of
the eye greenish yellow. Total length about 17 inches, gape 2'8, wing 9 - 7, tail 3 - 9, tarsus 3 - 2, bare
portion of the tibia l - 25.

Adult Female (Seville, May). Resembles the male; but the rufous buff plumes are much shorter, paler and
yellower, and in general size the bird is smaller.

Adult in ivinter. Entire plumage uniform creamy white, except the crown, which is pale rufous buff; bill
and iris yellow ; legs dark brown or dull blackish grey.

Young (Madagascar) . Crown semicrested, dull rufescent ochreous ; rest of the plumage white, except that
the back is tinged with pale buff ; legs dull greenish yellow.

The present species inhabits Southern Europe and the continent of Africa generally; but it
ranges only a short distance into Asia, being replaced in India, China, Japan, and the Malay
archipelago by Ardea coromanda (Bodd.).

In Great Britain this species has been shot on three occasions : one, a female, was, according
to Montagu (I.e.), shot late in October 1805, near Kingsbridge, Devon, where it had been seen
for several days in the same field attending some cows ; a second example, Mr. Stevenson says
(B. of Norf. ii. p. 151), was shot at Martham, near Yarmouth, in 1827; and a third is recorded
in the 'Zoologist' (1851, p. 3116) as having been procured in South Devon in April 1851.

It has not been obtained in Scandinavia, Northern Russia, North Germany, Holland,
Belgium, or Northern France ; but it is said to be an accidental straggler to the southern
departments of the last country. In Portugal, according to Professor Barboza du Bocage, it is
not uncommon. And Dr. E. Key writes (J. f. O. 1872, p. 155) that there is a large tract of
land near Lagos which is regularly more or less submerged at high water ; at low tide it is
numerously frequented by many of the Herons, amongst others by the present species, which
was in great abundance, and was said by the natives to be resident there. In Spain it is common,
and, to some extent, resident in suitable localities. Colonel Irby states (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 185)
that " the Buff-backed Heron is very common in low-lying districts in Andalucia, and some are
resident ; but they are very irregular in their movements, and chiefly noticed while passing
during March and April, as they always attend cattle when in wet marshy ground. The Spanish
herdsmen naturally object to have them molested, especially as there is a story of a sporting
Briton from Gibraltar having shot one as it sat on a cow's back — a story which I am afraid is
founded on fact, and only shows what the Englishman is capable of.

" The local names of this Heron all originate from its habit of attending cattle and freeing
them from parasites — Garrapatosa from garapata, a tick or louse; Purgabueyes, cattle-cleaner
or purifier.

"A male bird, which had been kept alive for about four years in the patio of the Fonda de
Europa, at Seville, during the first week in April (his fifth spring, as far as I could ascertain)
began to change the colour of the legs and the basal half of both mandibles to a pinkish red;

247

the irides also changed to beautiful rich pink colour, with a very slight golden ring round the
black pupil. This change was quite completed before the bird had fully assumed the buff-
coloured back, which is the mark of the breeding-dress."

Examples have been obtained in most of the provinces of Italy, especially in Liguria ; and
Dr. Giglioli states (Ibis, 1865, p. 60) that he met with two on the 30th April near Pisa. In
Sicily it is of very rare occurrence ; and Mr. A. B. Brooke says that it is a doubtful straggler to
Sardinia. Mr. C. A. Wright observes (Ibis, 1864, p. 143) that there is a preserved skin of this bird
in the Malta University Museum ; and Schembri records the capture of two specimens in Malta.
Lord Lilford remarks (Ibis, 1860, p. 346) that he saw a stuffed specimen at Corfu which was
killed at Butrinto, and he believes that he saw two on the race-course in April 1857. Dr. Kriiper
informs me that it has not been observed in Greece of late years ; but Temminck states that one
was obtained at the mouth of the Danube, and one in the Crimea, and that it is said to visit
Turkey and Dalmatia; and Professor von Nordmann speaks of it as being abundant on the
Danube.

I find no information regarding its occurrence in Asia Minor; but Canon Tristram says' that
he saw it in large flocks in Palestine ; and in Africa it is generally distributed in suitable localities
down to the Cape of Good Hope. Captain Shelley writes (B. of Egypt, p. 268), "This species
is very abundant in Egypt, especially in the Delta, where flocks may be daily seen feeding
among cattle without the least fear of man. On the ground it is graceful, but looks awkward
on first taking wing. It is a useful bird to the natives, as it causes great havoc among the
locusts and other insects, in this respect replacing the Sacred Ibis, for which bird it is usually
made to do duty with the tourist. In August it breeds in large flocks in the sont woods ;" and
Mr. Stafford Allen says (Ibis, 1863, p. 32) that "perhaps the most conspicuous bird that catches
the eye of the traveller in Egypt is the Buff-backed Heron (Herodias bubulcus ; Ardea russata,
Yarr. & Gould ; Bubulcus ibis, Bonaparte) in its winter plumage of pure white, which is to be
met with in flocks of from four or five to thirty, distributed all over the country.

" These birds especially affect the society of cattle, and may be seen feeding about among
the legs of the cows and buffaloes in the most fearless manner, like Starlings in a flock of sheep,
frequently perching on the backs of the lazy animals in the same way. The Arab name 'Abou
Gerdan ' (father of flocks), the French ' l'Heron Garde-boeuf,' and the Latin specific appellation
' bubulcus^ all have reference to this marked peculiarity.

" Contrary to the usual custom of the Herons and Egrets, most of which are piscivorous,
the ' Buff-backed ' does not feed upon fish, but upon the various kinds of insects, particularly
grasshoppers, which are so abundant in the rank herbage produced by the peculiar system of
irrigation in use amongst the Arabs. They are consequently seldom seen near the water's
edge. About dusk they retire to the trees to roost ; and though I have occasionally seen them
in the date-palms, they generally choose the sycamore or wild fig-tree for that purpose.

" It is frequently asserted that the Arabs consider this bird as sacred, and that killing one
is looked upon as a serious offence ; but I believe this is not the case, at least not in a religious
sense. I have sometimes, on having shot one for a specimen, been reproached for so doing,
much in the way that we should speak to any one who killed a Robin ; and I think that this

5k

248

more correctly represents the feeling on the point, although it is a hopeless task to make an
Arab understand any thing of an abstract nature.

" During the winter the plumage of the Buff-backed Heron is of a creamy-white colour,
with a small reddish-buff patch on the top of the head, the legs and feet being black. About
the commencement of April longer feathers, of a pale buff, begin to appear on the back, neck,
and crest (the rest of the plumage remaining in statu quo).

" These continue to grow in length and deepen in colour until the end of May, by which
time the summer dress is complete. At the same time the legs and feet change to a pale
yellowish olive. The bill at all times is of an ochraceous yellow ; and the irides vary in different
specimens (probably according to age) from pale to bright yellow. The lore is greenish. The male
is generally rather larger than the female, and the long feathers are a little more developed."

In Algeria the Buff-backed Heron is resident and numerous. Mr. Salvin, who first met
with it near Bizerta, and afterwards at Zana, says that it is very local, though abundant in the
localities it inhabits. Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., only once saw it in the Sahara ; but at Oued el
Alleg he noticed upwards of forty feeding amongst the cattle ; Mr. A. von Homeyer observed many
on Lake Halloula, where he was told that they breed in colonies ; and Mr. Taczanowski saw one
near Lake Fezzara in December. Around Tangier, Favier remarks, " it is the commonest of the
Herons, and keeps in small flocks, always following herds of cattle, often sitting on their backs,
and chiefly feeding on insects. A small proportion remain during the breeding-season; but the
majority pass northwards in February, March, and April, returning late in the year." It is said
to have occurred in Madeira, and is distributed in Africa down to the Cape colony. There are
examples in the Leyden Museum from Senegal and the Gold Coast ; M. Jules Verreaux states
that it occurs on the Orange River; and Mr. Andersson says (B. of Damara L. p. 288) that it
is exceedingly numerous in Ondonga. Mr. E. L. Layard (B. of S. Afr. p. 307) writes that two
in non-breeding dress have been received from Mr. Arnot, and there were several examples in
a collection made by Mr. Chapmen on the Zambesi. Mr. Ayres obtained it both in breeding-
and non-breeding-dress in Natal, and also met with it in the Transvaal ; and Mr. Barratt writes
(Ibis, 1876, p. 211) : — " I shot a fine male of this species in a fiock which were hopping about
under some oxen, from which they were picking off the ticks. I have obtained them close to
Lydenburg and Potchefstroom, and I have seen them near Pretoria, Rustenberg, and near the
Vaal river. They congregate in flocks, standing on one leg basking in the sun." In Madagascar
the Buff-backed Heron appears to be common, and is probably resident. Mr. S. Roch obtained
one at Antananarivo in October, and he saw several at Farafata ; and, speaking of it again under
the name of Ardea ruficristata, he adds that it is " very common in the neighbourhood of
Tamatave. We almost daily observed flocks of white Egrets on our journey up the country,
even as far as the Mangouron, more than one hundred miles from the coast ; they were in con-
stant attendance on herds of cattle, from whose skins they would dexterously pick off the ticks
and carapats. I also observed that, whenever the natives burnt brushwood or grass-land, these
birds collected in numbers in the very smoke, to catch any insects that were thus driven from
their resting-places."

Mr. Edward Newton, who also met with this Heron in Madagascar, writes (Ibis, 1863,
p. 456) as follows : — " These birds, I was told, never breed elsewhere than on the small coral

24Y)

islands, covered with thick brushwood, which occur every here and there on the reef along the
coast. They certainly roost there, as towards sunset, and even after, parties of from two to
twenty individuals are to be seen wending their way out to sea in the direction of one or other
of these islands. Fong Island to the southward of Hivondrona, Prune Island to the northward
of Tamatave, and a small one near Fenerive seem to be the favourite spots resorted to by them.
The first-named must be at least eight or ten miles from the coast. I never had an opportunity
of visiting any of them — no easy task, by the way, on account of the heavy swell, which makes
landing dangerous, and sometimes impossible. I think they were breeding in September."

Captain Rowland M. Sperling found the Buff-backed Heron plentiful at Zanzibar and
Mozambique, and adds that when they were about 150 miles from Madagascar many of these
birds, in breeding-plumage, flew on board.

In Asia the present species extends only a short distance, being replaced in India, China,
Japan, and the Malay archipelago by a closely allied species, Ardea coromanda (Cancroma
coromanda, Bodd., Tabl. PI. Enl. p. 54, 1873), which differs in being rather larger in size, the
rufous portion of the breeding-dress being richer in colour, and the bare portion of the tibia
being considerably larger. Where the two forms meet it is impossible to say ; but, according to
De Filippi, Ardea bubulcus is found in countless numbers on the Murdab, an inlet of the
Caspian, close to Enzeli.

In many respects the Buff-backed Heron differs not a little from its allies ; for although it
is found in marshy and wet localities, it is by no means shy or fearful of man, but, evincing
a partiality for inhabited places, it frequents pastures where cattle are grazing, and follows the
plough in flocks, in order to feed on the insects which infest the cattle and those which are
turned up by the husbandman. In the dry steppes it is often seen in vast flocks in places where
the locusts are found, and destroys vast numbers of those noxious insects. In the far interior of
Africa the Buff-backed Heron follows the herds of wild buffaloes and elephants, and may be
seen perched on their backs, as it often is in more civilized regions on the backs of the tame
cattle ; and being a conspicuous object on account of its white plumage, it not unfrequently
betrays to the hunter the position of the wild animals with which it consorts. In its flight and
general movements this bird differs but little from its allies; and, like them, it is seldom seen
except in larger or smaller flocks, being eminently gregarious in its habits. It may possibly
feed on fishes ; but if so, it is in exceptional cases, and not as a rule ; for its food consists almost
entirely of insects — to a large extent of the various parasitic species, butterflies, bees, beetles of
different kinds ; and it is said also to devour frogs, lizards, and small mammals.

The call-note or voice of this Heron is described by travellers who have met with it as
resembling the bleating of a sheep ; but it is rather more hollow and deeper in tone.

The Buff-backed Heron breeds in colonies often consisting of thirty or more pairs ; and the
nests are placed on trees, either near the trunk on the larger branches, or on the outer forks of
the upper boughs. Von Heuglin describes the nest as constructed of dry sticks and twigs,
tolerably large, but flat, and not very high ; and the number of eggs varies from two to four.
Specimens in my collection from North Africa are uniform pale greenish blue in colour, and
vary in size from lf£ by 1^- to lf^ by l-^§ inch.

In North-east Africa it breeds about the time when the Nile overflows its banks ; and Von

5k2

250

Heuglin remarks that it does not assume the nuptial dress until May or June ; but Mr. Stafford
Allen says that the long nuptial plumes begin to appear in April, though the complete breeding-
plumage is not attained until May.

Mr. E. C. Taylor, speaking of its habits as observed by him in Egypt, describes it (Ibis, 1859,
p. 50) as " very tame and familiar. It does not frequent water, or marshy ground, like most of
its congeners, but especially affects the society of cattle ; I have often seen it standing on the
backs of buffaloes and cows. From this propensity to fraternize with cattle, it is called ' Cow-
bird ' by the English." And Mr. Ayres, writing from Natal, says (Ibis, 1863, p. 330) that " these
Herons are gregarious in their habits, roosting by night amongst the branches of trees which
overhang the small lakes that are plentiful in that part of the country. They appear to feed
entirely on ticks (Acari), which they pick from the cattle as they are feeding, walking alongside
of them and every now and then taking one off. They are wary birds, like most of the Herons,
and not easy of approach. The farmers in the neighbourhood have also, of course, great objection
to such useful birds being shot."

The synonymy of this Heron is, as I have found to be the case with that of many of its
allies, by no means easy of elucidation. Many recent authors consider that it should be
generically separated from its allies ; but in this view I cannot concur. Nor can I agree that it
should bear the specific name of ibis, for the following reasons. Hasselquist's Ardea ibis is
certainly more probably the present species than the Sacred Ibis, with which both he and
Linnaeus confused it; but his name dates prior to 1766. In Linnseus's edition of Hasselquist's
journey, which bears date 1766 (I. c), he refers back to his tenth edition of the ' Systema
Naturae' (p. 144. no. 18), in which the bird is described as follows: — "Ardea ibis tota alba,
pedibus atris, unguibus arcuatis maximis ;" but in the twelfth edition Linnaeus includes this as
a synonym of his Tantalus ibis, which is certainly the Sacred Ibis ; and for that reason this name
must be discarded. The next name in order of date is that of Ardea lucida, Rafinesque ; but
here also the description is not sufficiently clear to identify his bird with the present species.
His description (I. c.) is : — " Tutta bianca lucente, con ciuffetto, rostro e piedi gialli, spazio nudo
fra il rostro e l'occhio bigio." Under these circumstances I think that the proper name to be
used is Ardea bubulcus, Audouin, respecting which there can be no doubt ; for Montagu, who
figured and described the Buff-backed Heron in 1813 (I. c), erroneously made use of the name
Ardea cequinoctialis, which had already been preoccupied by Linnaeus (Syst. Nat. i. p. 241) in
1776 for an American species.

The specimen figured, on the same Plate with the Squacco Heron, is an adult male from
Spain, in full breeding-dress, and is in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. JE. Dresser.

a,d,b,2. Coto del Rey, Seville, Spain, May 1869 {Lord Lilford). c,d. Madagascar 1868 (Pollen and
Van Dam).

E Mus. Brit. Beg.

a, b, c. Egypt, d. Athens, e. Gambia. /. South Africa, g. Madagascar.

251

ARDEA KALLOIDES.

(SQUACCO HERON.)

Ardea botaurus minor, Briss. Om. v. p. 452 (1760).
Ardea cancrofagus, Briss. torn. cit. p. 466 (1760).
Ardea cancrofagus rufus ncevius, Briss. tom. cit. p. 471 (1760).
Ardea cancrofagus luteus, Briss. torn. cit. p. 472 (1760).
Ardea ralloides, Scop. Ann. i. Hist. Nat. p. 88. no. 121 (1769).
Ardea castanea, S. G. Gmel. Reise Bussl. i. p. 165 (1770).
Ardea marsigli, Lepechin, Nov. Comm. Petrop. xiv. p. 502 (1770).
Ardea pumila, Lepechin, ut supra (1770).
Ardea comata, Pall. Reise, ii. p. 715 (1773).
Le Crabier caiot, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. vii. p. 389 (1780).
Le Crabier marron, Buff. tom. cit. p. 390 (1780).
Le Crabier de Mahon, Buff. tom. cit. p. 393 (1780).
Le Petit Butor, Buff. tom. cit. p. 423 (1780).
Le Petit Butor du Senegal, Buff. tom. cit. p. 426 (1780).
Ardea squaiotta, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 634 (1788).
Ardea erythropus, Gmel. ut supra. (1788).
Ardea senegalensis, Gmel. tom. cit. p. 645 (1788).
Ardea audax, Lapeyrouse, Neue schwed. Abh. iii. p. 106 (1794).
Ardea botaurulus, Schrank, Fauna Boica, i. p. 221 (1798).
Ardea deaurata, Merr. in Ersch & Grub. Encycl. v. p. 173 (1820).
Ardeola ralloides (Scop.), Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 559.
Nycticorax ralloides (Scop.), Ehr. Symb. Phys. Aves, fol. m (1828).
Cancrophagus, Kaup (Ardea ralloides et minuta), Natiirl. Syst. p. 42 (1829).
Bwplius castaneus (Gmel.), C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 589 (1831).
Buphus ralloides (Scop.), C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1831).
Buphus illyricus, C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 590 (1831).
Buphus comatus (Pail.), C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 588 (1831).
Egretta comata (Pall.), Swains. Classif. of B. ii. p. 354 (1837).
Botaurus comatus (Pall.), Macg. Man. Brit. B. ii. p. 125 (1842).
XBwplms fseudoralloides, C. L. Brehm, Vogelfang, p. 295 (1855).
Bu/phus comata (Pall.), Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 126 (1857).

Ardea griseo-alba, Bosc, Act. Soc. Hist. Nat. Paris, i. no. 59, 1792, fide Reich. J. f. O. 1877,
p. 256.

Heron crabier, French; Garza canaria, Spanish; Sgarza-ciuffetto, Italian; Agrott-isfar,
Maltese ; Aislius, Moorish ; Schopfreiher, Rallenreiher, German ; Rareiger, Dutch ;
Tojmeire, Danish.

252

Figures notabiles.

DAubenton, PI. Enl. 315, 348 ; Werner, Atlas, Coureurs, pi. 28 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 55 ;
Fritsch, Vog, Eur. taf. 40. figs. 3, 5 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 224 ; Gould, B. of
Eur. pi. 275; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 25; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pi. 192.

Ad. capite et collo flavido-ochraceis, pilei et nucha? plumis elongatis, lanceolatis et nigro marginatis : dorsi
plumis elongatis filamentosis rufescenti-ochraceis : alis et Cauda albis : mento albo : gutture et peetore
flavo-oehraceis, plumis elongatis filamentosis : corpore reliquo subtiis albo : rostro ad basin plumbeo-
cseruleOj versus apicem nigro : regione oculari viridi : iride flava, : pedibus flavo-viridibus.

Adult Male in summer (Seville, June) . Crown, nape, and sides of the head pale creamy yellow, the feathers
on the crown and nape much elongated and pointed, a few of the longest quite white, and all margined
with black ; dorsal feathers much elongated, filamentous, the upper portion coppery ochreous, and
becoming creamy buff on the lower part ; wings and tail pure white ; chin and upper throat white ;
lower throat and breast pale creamy yellow, the feathers like those on the back, hairy in texture : rest
of the underparts pure white ; bare space round the eye greenish ; bill pale lead-blue at the base, and
blackish towards the point ; iris rich yellow; legs greenish yellow. Total length about 18 - 5 inches,
culmen 2 - 62, wing 8'6, tail 3"5, tarsus 2 - 5.

Adult Female (Seville) . Differs from the male merely in having the nuchal feathers rather shorter.

Young Female (Turkey, 19th May) . Differs from the adult merely in having the dorsal feathers (except at
the sides) coppery brown, much darker than in the adult, the nuchal feathers shorter and yellower, the
lower throat striped with blackish, and the wings marked with yellowish buff; bill dull greenish
yellow, brownish along the ridge ; iris whitish yellow ; legs yellowish green.

Obs. The fully adult dress is not assumed until the third year. In the second year the crest is rather
fuller than previously, but not nearly so long as when adult, and the back is dull coppery brown, the
feathers being still rather short.

This small Heron inhabits Southern Europe and Africa, ranging eastward to the Caspian, and
but rarely straggling into Central and Northern Europe. It has, however, been met with in
different parts of Great Britain on many occasions. Mr. Harting (Handb. Brit. B. p. 150) cites
twenty-one instances of its occurrence in the Isle of Wight, Cornwall, Devonshire, Dorsetshire,
Shropshire, Hants, Wilts, Somersetshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cumberland ; Mr. Cordeaux states
that one was killed in Lincolnshire, at Fillingham, near Gainsborough ; and Martin (Naturalist,
1853, p. 61) records the occurrence of one on the Glasgow canal, near Stockton, on the 9th
October 1852. In a letter lately received from Mr. J. Gatcombe, this gentleman writes, "I may
mention that a short time ago I examined a very fine and nearly adult Squacco Heron in a
collection at Blatchford House, the seat of Lord Blatchford, in Devon, which was killed in June
1840 by the side of a large pond adjoining the house. This specimen has never been recorded,
except in a very short notice in the 'Naturalist' for 1850; and as this Heron is now so rarely
met with in Great Britain, I think that every capture should be noticed." According to
Thompson it has once occurred in Ireland, a specimen having been killed in Killeagh bog, a
few miles from Youghal, on the 26th May 1849.

25;]

It has not been observed in Norway, Sweden, or North Eussia ; Mr. Taczanowski says that
it is very rare in Poland ; Nauraann states that it is of very rare occurrence in Central Germany,
but is often to be met with in Silesia. One was shot in Anhalt many years ago. Pastor Boeck
obtained it once in Prussia, in June ; and Von Preen says that one was shot near Doberan, in
Mecklenburg, on the 25th of May 1844. According to Professor Eeinhardt it has once been
shot in Holstein and' once in Jutland. In Holland, Professor Schlegel remarks, it was once
procured on Schollevaars-eiland, near Rotterdam. Examples have been obtained near Tournay ;
but it is of very rare occurrence in Belgium, as also in the northern provinces of France. It has,
however, been occasionally captured in the marshes of Artois and in many parts of Central
France, and becomes tolerably common in the marshes at the mouth of the Rhone. It is
included in Professor Barboza du Bocage's list of the birds of Portugal ; and it is fairly
abundant in Southern Spain, where, Colonel Irby says, "it is entirely migratory, arriving during
the month of April. They are common in the marisma of the Guadalquivir ; but I never
observed any near Gibraltar, nor did I ever see them following cattle, like Ardeola russata.
They nest late in the season ; but I regret to be unable to give any personal information as to
their breeding-habits."

In Savoy it appears on passage singly or in pairs — birds of the year being generally seen in
the autumn, and adults on the spring migration. In Italy it is tolerably abundant, especially on
passage in May, and in Sicily and Sardinia both in the spring and autumn. Mr. C. Bygrave
"Wharton remarks (Ibis, 1876, p. 27) that he saw one in the flesh which had been shot at
Biguglia, Corsica, on the 15th May; and Mr. C. A. Wright states (Ibis, 1864, p. 143) that he
most frequently met with it in Malta in May, and shot four or five examples at different times
on Fort-Manoel Island in that month. It has also been observed in June, and occurs on the
autumn migration in September.

In Southern Germany the Squacco Heron becomes tolerably common ; and Dr. Fritsch states
(J. f. O. 1871, p. 391) that "during the last few years it has been almost regularly observed and
obtained. Ostrdal obtained it in 1852; and a gamekeeper called Sikesch shot one near Kost
in 1862. In September 1864 Ostrdal observed fifteen individuals at the pond of Bohclanec, near
Pardubic, of which he killed five. The same year some were obtained near Kel, not far from
the ford of Stefan, — also at the ' Skupice,' near Podebrad, in the beginning of May 1866 (Hoff-
mann), Brandeis a. d. Adler, 21st of May 1867 \HromadTco); and a flock was seen in 1869 near
Kestran, not far from Protivin. I have not the least doubt that these little Herons would nest
here in the lowlands of the Elbe if left in peace." It is common in Southern Hungary along the
Turkish frontier up into Dalmatia and Austria ; and in the large marshes of the Lower Danube
it breeds in company with the Little Egret, arriving about the same time, and is found in
Greece, but does not appear to breed there. Dr. Kriiper says that it arrives in Attica late in
March, and remains until May. In the Cyclades it is a migrant. According to Lord Lilford
(Ibis, 1860, p. 346), this Heron " axrives in great numbers in Epirus in March, and, I believe,
breeds in the marshes of the interior. Very abundant on the Lake of Scutari in August 1857.
I found this species the most difficult of approach of any of the Ardeidce ;" and he further informs
me that he "met with it in Suda bay, in Crete, and also in Cyprus, in the spring of 1875."

In Southern Russia the Squacco Heron is said to be rare on the coasts of the Black Sea ;

254

and it is found in Asia Minor, but whether numerously or otherwise I cannot say. Canon
Tristram met with it in flocks in Palestine, where, however, it was less common than the Buff-
backed Heron. In Africa it is very widely distributed; Von Heuglin says that there were few
places he visited in North Africa where he did not meet with it. It appears on the Nile early,
in July, August, and September, and is seen there, in Eastern Kordofan, on the White and Blue
Nile, and in Abyssinia ; but immature birds were chiefly met with. Adult birds were numerous
in Nubia in June and July ; he saw several flocks in September on the Danakil coast ; and
examples in full breeding-dress were seen early in April in Lower Egypt and the Fayoom, from
which it appears that it breeds there. Captain Shelley says (B. of Egypt, p. 269), "it is distri-
buted in small numbers throughout Egypt and Nubia, where it is a resident. I have shot it
on the banks of the river near Dendera in May, and saw it in flocks at Damietta and in the
Fayoom in February." Mr. Blanford met with it in Abyssinia, and shot a specimen at Antalo.
It is resident and generally distributed in Algeria. Mr. Salvin found it common in the marshes
of Zana, but singly, or two or three together, rather than in flocks like the Buff-backed Herons ;
and Canon Tristram s.ays that vast flocks resort to the lakes of Tuggurt, a portion only of which,
he was informed, remain there to breed.

According to Favier {fide Colonel Irby, Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 186), "This species is nearly as
common around Tangier as Ardeola russata, occurring in small flocks during migration. Some
remain in the country to breed, nesting on the ground among sedges, laying in May and June
five eggs, which are more oval in shape than those of Ardea purpurea, but of the same colour ;"
and Colonel Irby himself found this Heron in great numbers about the swamps of Ras-Doura
towards the end of April, where they were by far the most common species of Ardeidoe.

Dr. Bolle says that he saw examples of this Heron in the Leon collection, which had been
obtained in the Canaries ; and on the continent of Africa the Squacco Heron has been met with
as far as Natal and the Transvaal. Dr. Anton Reichenow. found it breeding at the Gold Coast ;
and Andersson (B. of Damara L. p. 288) says that this Heron is " found in Damara and Great
Namaqua Land throughout the year, but is more numerous in those countries during the rainy
season than at other times. It is very abundant in the Lake-regions, and on the rivers Botletle,
Teoughe, and Okavango. It feeds on insects, frogs, &c." It has been obtained in Natal and
the Transvaal, being rare in the former colony ; but, according to Ayres, it is numerous in the
neighbourhood of Potchefstroom, in the Transvaal. Mr. T. E. Buckley shot it in the Matabili
country ; and Dr. Kirk met with it commonly on the Zambesi. Mr. E. Newton procured it in
Madagascar ; Dickerson records it from Joanna ; and Dr. Kirk says that it was common in the
marshes on the sea-coast near Pomone.

The Squacco Heron does not penetrate far into Asia. As above stated, it is found on the
shores of the Caspian ; and Mr. Blanford believes that it occurs in Persia, though he has no
evidence of its presence there.

In habits the Squacco Heron is said to differ a good deal from its congeners. Though in
general appearance it reminds one not a little of the Bitterns, it really has in its habits more
affinity with the Egrets. When resting it holds its body erect, the neck drawn in so that it
looks quite short ; but directly its suspicions are aroused it erects its head, and will generally
seek refuge in flight. Unless subjected to persecution, however, it is by no means a shy bird,

255

and will frequently admit of a close approach, though in some localities it is described as being
extremely shy, having doubtless been much persecuted. It walks with greater ease and grace
than most of its allies ; but, like them, when intent on catching some unlucky frog, it will move
along in the peculiar slow manner so characteristic of the Herons and Bitterns. It flies with
tolerable ease, and rather swiftly, but softly and without noise, the legs being stretched out
behind and the head drawn in, but not so much so as in many of the other species. It is said
to affect the company of cattle, like its ally Ardea bubulcus, being especially fond of swine ; and
Naumann relates that he often shot specimens of the Squacco Heron in places frequented by
large herds of pigs, as there these birds were quite tame and easy of approach, and that when
flushed in a neighbouring swamp he has seen this Heron fly to the swine as if for refuge. The
call-note of the Squacco Heron is a harsh call like the syllable charr; but it is not loud, and can
only be heard when the bird is quite close. When flushed it will sometimes utter its cry once
or twice, but it usually flies off in silence. It feeds on fish, frogs, and aquatic insects of various
kinds, worms, and small shellfish, and seeks its food by day and never during the night, though it
may be found fishing quite late in the evening.

It breeds in marshy localities in Southern Europe and in Africa, nesting on the ground
amongst the aquatic herbage, and lays four or five eggs, which are uniform pale greenish blue in
colour, much darker than those of the Buff-backed Heron, and about the same tinge as those of
the Purple Heron. Eggs in my collection, taken on the Theiss from the 20th May to the 2nd
June, vary in size from 1^§ by 1^ to If ^j by T 4 ^ inch.

The specimen figured, on the same Plate with the Buff-backed Heron, is an adult male, in
full summer dress, from Spain, in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.
a, 6 , 6, ? . Seville, June 1869 {Lord Lilford). c, 2jun. Khathane, Turkey, May 19th, 1869 {Robson).

E Mus. C. A. Wright.
a,b,2. Malta, May 26th, 1871. c, 2 . Malta, April 1871 (C. A. W.).

5o

256

257

Genus ARDETTA.

Ardea apud Brisson, Orn. v. p. 497 (1760).

Botaurus apud Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 559.

Cancrophagus apud Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 42 (1829).

Butor apud Swainson, Classif. of B. ii. p. 354 (1837).

Ardeola apud Bonaparte, Comp. List, p. 48 (1838).

Ardetta, G. R. Gray, List of Gen. of B. Appendix, p. 13 (1842).

The genus Ardetta is represented in the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian, Nearctic,
and Neotropical Regions, only one species being found in the Western Palaearctic Region.

In many respects these birds resemble the Bitterns, so much so that some authors have
included them in the genus Botaurus ; but they are clearly deserving of generic separation.
They frequent marshes, rivers, and sheets of water which are well covered with aquatic vegeta-
tion, are shy and secretive in their habits, and hide pertinaciously amongst the dense thickets of
reeds and bushes. They take wing unwillingly, but fly swiftly and with ease. They feed on
small fish, insects, frogs, &c, which they obtain in the wet localities they inhabit. Their cry is
more like that of the Bittern than the call-note of the Herons. They construct a rather heavy
nest of twigs and aquatic plants, which they place amongst the reeds above shallow water ; and
they deposit several bluish-white eggs.

Ardetta minuta, the type of the genus, has the bill longer than the head, straight, tapering
to a sharp point ; gape-line straight ; nostrils linear ; space in front of the eye bare ; wings
moderately long, broad and full, the first two quills nearly equal, the third slightly shorter;
tail short, slightly rounded; legs rather short, the tibia feathered to the joint, tarsus anteriorly
scutellate ; toes long, rather slender ; claws long, slightly curved, acute, that on the middle toe
serrated on the inner edge; plumage soft and full, the head without crest, and the dorsal
plumage not elongated as in Ardea.

130

258

401

J,C Keulemans hth.

Harihart imp-

LITTLE BITTERN.
ARDEOLA MINUTA.

259

ABDETTA MINUTA.

(LITTLE BITTERN.)

The Little Brown Bittern, Edw. Gleanings, part ii. pp. 135, 275.

Ardea ardeola, Briss. Orn. v. p. 497, pi. xl. fig. 1 (1760).

Ardea ardeola ncevia, Briss. Orn. v. p. 500, pi. xl. fig. 2 (1760).

Ardea minuta, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 240 (1766).

Le Blongios, Bun . Hist. Nat. Ois. vii. p. 395 (1780).

1 Ardea danubialis, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 637 (1788).

t.Ardea soloniensis, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 637 (1788).

Botaurus minuta (L.), Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 559.

Cancrophagus, Kaup [Ardea ralloides et minuta), Naturl. Syst. p. 42 (1829).

Botaurus pitsillus, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 598 (1831).

Butor minutus (L.), Swains. Classif. of Birds, ii. p. 354 (1837).

Ardeola minuta (L.), Bp. Comp. List, p. 48 (1838).

Ardetta minuta (L.), G. B. Gray, List of Gen. of B. Appendix, p. 13 (1842).

Ardeola pusilla, L. Brehm, Naumannia, 1855, p. 290.

Heron blongios, French ; Garga pequena, Portuguese ; Cangrejerita, Spanish ; Tarabusino,
Italian ; Blongios, Maltese ; kleiner Bohrdommel, Zwergrohrdommel, German ; Woudaajyje
Dutch ; Lvcerghejre, Bvasrg-rbrdrum, Danish ; Bverg Bordrum, Swedish.

Figurce notabiles.

Werner, Atlas, Coureurs, pi. 29 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 32, Suppl. taf. 14 ; Frisch, Vog.
Deutschl. taf. 207; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 37. figs. 3, 4, 5; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl.
taf. 227 ; Sundevall, Svensk. Fogl. pi. 76. figs. 1, 2 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 282 ; id. B. of
G. Brit. iv. pi. 29; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pis. 196, 197; Bettoni, Ucc. Lomb. pi. 3.

J ad. pileo, clorso, cauda, et scapularibus nigris viridi nitentibus, capitis lateribus et collo cinereis vinaceo
tinctis : remigibus nigris purpureo nitentibus : tectricibus alarum majoribus cseruleo-cinereis vix
ochraceo tinctis, medjis et minoribus ochraceis : corpore subtus ochraceo, juguli plumis elongatis,
rostro et pedibus viridi-flavis : iride et loris nudis flavis.

2 ad. pileo nigro vix fusco tincto, capitis lateribus cum collo lateraliter et postico rufescentibus : dorso et
scapularibus saturate castaneo-fuscis, plumis ochraceo marginatis : cauda nigra viridi nitente : remi-
gibus saturate fuscis : tectricibus alarum ochraceis, plaga magna castanea notatis : mento albo, linea.
centrali ochracea, notato : corpore subtus ochraceo, albido striata.

Adult Male (Malta, May). Crown, back, tail, and scapulars black glossed with bottle-green ; sides of the
head, neck, and hind neck dull French grey tinged with vinous : quills black with a purplish tinge ;
larger wing-coverts dove-blue tinged with ochreous, median and lesser coverts warm ochreous ; under-

5y 2

260

parts generally ochreous, the lower neck-feathers much elongatedj forming a pectoral tuft or bunch,
the feathers which are covered by this tuft being blackish brown bordered with ochreous ; bill and legs
greenish yellow; iris and bare space round the eye yellow. Total length about 12 inches, culmen 2 - l,
wing 5 - 83, tail 2 - 4, tarsus l - 72, bare portion of tibia very small, indeed scarcely perceptible.

Adult Female (Italy) . Crown black but with a brown tinge, slightly glossed, sides of the head and neck
and hind neck rufous ; back and scapulars deep chestnut-brown, the feathers margined with ochreous ;
tail black glossed with bottle-green ; quills dark dull brown ; wing-coverts deep ochreous, the shoulder
with a patch of chestnut-red ; chin white with a central ochreous stripe ; underparts as in the male, but
streaked with white. Culmen T95, wing 5 - 7, tail T9, tarsus 1*75.

Young Male. Somewhat resembles the female, but has the upper parts more varied with buff, and the neck
and underparts generally are clearly striped with deep brown, and are of a deeper ochreous tinge.

Young in down {fide Stolker). Covered with soft ochreous yellowish down, which allows the pink of the
flesh to show through here and there; on the crown and back the down is longer than elsewhere; bill,
legs, and the bare portions about the eye, except a dark line from the gape to the eye, yellowish green ;
iris dark brownish.

Throughout the whole of Temperate Europe the Little Bittern is not uncommon in the summer.
It has, however, occurred in Sweden, but is in general a rare straggler to the northern portions
of Europe. In the autumn it passes southward ; and in the winter season it is found tolerably far
into Africa. It appears to range only into Western Asia, being replaced in Eastern Asia by
Ardetta sinensis.

In Great Britain it is a somewhat rare summer visitant, but has been recorded from many
parts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, though less frequently from the two latter countries.
Mr. Stevenson enumerates about twenty instances of its capture in the " Broad " districts of
Norfolk and Suffolk, of fourteen of which he has the exact dates, nine having been killed in
May, June, and July, four in December and February, and one in September. As may be
supposed from the nature of the country, it has been observed more frequently in these two
counties than elsewhere in England ; but it has been recorded from Devonshire, Dorsetshire,
Cornwall, Herefordshire, Hampshire, Berkshire, Middlesex, Yorkshire, Northumberland, &c.
Professor Ansted includes it as occurring in Guernsey; but there is no specimen in the Museum.
Mr. Cecil Smith, however, records the capture of one there in November 1876. Referring to its
occurrence in Dorsetshire, Mr. Mansel-Pleydell says that one was killed at Preston, near Wey-
mouth, in 1840, and three which had been shot on the Wareham river passed through Mr. Hart's
hands in 1866. Mr. Cordeaux (B. Humb. Distr. p. 104) states that one was shot near Gains-
borough in the spring of 1870, an immature female was killed on the Mere, near Scarborough,
in August 1863; and in Mr. Boulton's collection there was an adult male obtained in Lincoln-
shire. According to Hancock, " it is an extremely rare casual visitant to Northumberland and
Durham. A mature male was shot at Blaydon, near Newcastle, on the 12th of May 1810 ; this
specimen is now in the Newcastle Museum, and is the individual figured by Bewick. Another
example was killed in April 1859 in the garden at Denton Hall, three miles west of Newcastle,
and is in the possession of Mr. Hoyle. A third individual was shot at Benridge, Woolsington,
Northumberland, in 1866, and is in the collection of Mr. C. M. Adamson: this specimen is a

261

mature male." It is said to have bred in England ; but there appears to be no proof that this is
the case, as I have been unable to gather any evidence to show that a nest has really been taken.
In Scotland it has been but rarely met with ; and the occurrences recorded by Mr. Robert Gray
(B. of W. of Scotl. p. 278) are: — one at Aberdeen 21st October 1866 ; one at the junction of the
Don and Ury, below Keith Hall, on the 28th May 1868 ; one near Fintry House 23rd September
1868; and one at Luffness, East Lothian, 23rd September 1867. Dr. Edmonston noticed it in
Shetland ; and according to Messrs. Baikie and Heddle, one was shot by Mr. Strang on Sanday,
Orkney, in 1806. Mr. Thompson (B. of Ireland, ii. p. 159) writes as follows: — "The first indi-
vidual of this species killed in Ireland that came under my observation (as recorded in the
'Proceedings' of the Zoological Society for 1834, p. 30) was an immature bird in the plumage
of the young after the first moult, according to Mr. Selby's description. It was shot in the
county of Armagh in November 1830, and sent to my friend, William Sinclair, Esq., of Belfast,
who preserved it for his collection. An intelligent sportsman, on seeing this specimen, assured
us that a bird which he had observed in spring some years before at the bog-meadows, near
Belfast, was of the same species. He described it as rising from the ground almost perpen-
dicularly when sprung, and descending again in a similar manner. Another gentleman, who
saw the specimen in 1833, at once recognized it as identical in species with a bird which he had
shot a year or two previously in the county of Kerry. Mr. T. W. "Warren, of Dublin, possesses
an Ardea minuta, which was shot about the year 1833 in the county of Longford. In 1837 that
gentleman told me of his having, some years before, seen one in a fresh state which was shot at
Merrion, near that city, and preserved for Sir William Homan. Mr. Glennon states that the
Little Bittern has been more than once killed in the marsh at Sandymount, near Dublin.
Dr. Harvey, of Cork, informs us that an adult male bird in his collection was shot in the summer
of 1842, at Woodside, by Mr. Robert Parker, and that the Rev. Mr. Stopford had also killed one
in that county. About the 1st of May 1849, one was shot by an officer of the 9th Regiment in
a bog between Newry and Dundalk." The Little Bittern has not occurred in Greenland ; but a
specimen was sent to the Copenhagen Museum some years ago from Iceland, where it was found
dead on the shore. Mr. H. C. Miiller records the capture of one on Stromoe, in the Faeroes, in
1834 ; and it has also been met with in Scandinavia. Nilsson says that it has been twice obtained
in Sweden — once many years back at Westeras ; and the second was shot in Dagstorps moss, in
Skane, about the middle of October 1849. It has not been observed in Finland ; but Mr. Sabanaeff
informs me that it breeds in the Moscow Government, as also in Smolensk, and possibly in
Jaroslaf. In the Riazan Government it is rarer ; but, according to Bogdanoff, it is found as far
as the Spask district, in the Kazan Government. Mr. Taczanowski speaks of it as being common
in Poland in the summer. In North Germany it is tolerably common. According to Gloger it
occurs abundantly in Silesia; and Borggreve adds that it certainly breeds on the Lower and
Central Oder and on the Warte-Bruch. Boeck says that it nests in Prussia ; and it is said to
breed commonly in Posen, in Anhalt, Mecklenburg, and but rarely in Oldenburg, though com-
monly on the Rhine and the Moselle. Borggreve once saw a specimen on the Sieg in winter.
Referring to its presence in Mark Brandenburg, Mr. Herman Schalow writes (J. f. O. 1876,
p. 17) that it "breeds in the district. In some years it is tolerable common, in others rarer.
During the last years we observed it every year at the lake of Tegel, and in the vicinity of

262

Marwitz and Velten. About ten years ago it bred regularly near Weissensee. Altum mentions
it as breeding near Neustadt, Ew. ; Schulz received it from Copenick. According to Borggreve
it may possibly breed in the Lower and Middle Oderbruch. Our opinion is that the Little
Bittern has been more abundant in the Mark during the last few years. Migrant ; end of April,
end of October."

It has been obtained on several occasions in Denmark. According to Collin one is recorded
by Teilmann as having been shot at Norholm, in Southern Jutland; there are two young birds
from Holstein in the Copenhagen Museum ; Mr. Gad shot one in his garden at Saeby ; and it has
been recorded from Soberg Mose, near Odense, near Bingsted, and at Ostrupgaard in Fyen. An
old bird was shot in Fodstette Mose, on Langeland, in June 1874; and according to Boie it is
said to have bred near Kiel ; but Mr. Benzon informs me that there is, so far as he can ascertain,
no authentic instance of a nest having been found in Denmark. In Western Germany the Little
Bittern breeds not unfrequently, especially, it is said, along the Rhine not far from Darmstadt ;
and I have met with it on several occasions in the Rhenish Provinces. In Holland it breeds in
the larger marshes and on the banks of the meres, though, as Mr. Labouchere informs me, not
so numerously as it used formerly to do. It arrives in May, and leaves again in September. In
Belgium it occurs somewhat irregularly, on passage, in spring and autumn ; but it visits the
Campine and Poldero more regularly, nesting on the Moselle. It arrives in the northern pro-
vinces of France in May, and leaves in the autumn ; and in the south of France it occurs at the
two seasons of passage, some few remaining to nest in the Camargue.

It is said to be by no means common in Portugal, but numerous in some parts of Spain,
notably in the Albufera of Valencia. Colonel Irby says (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 187): — "The Little
Bittern is, in Andalucia, entirely migratory, arriving late in April. Considerable numbers nest
among rushes and sedges. They are late breeders, nesting early in June, and laying as many as
six white eggs. I have no exact date of the autumnal migration; but they are all gone by
October."

Passing eastward, again, I find this Bittern recorded as occurring in Savoy at the two seasons
of passage ; but very few ever remain there to breed. In Italy it arrives in the early spring, and
remains, in suitable localities, until the autumn ; in Sicily it is very abundant, especially in the
marshes of Catania, Lentini, and Terranova. Mr. Wright has met with it frequently in Malta,
especially in April, May, and September ; but Mr. Wharton only once met with it in Corsica,
near Bastia, in April.

In Southern Germany it breeds here and there, and, according to Fritsch, is the commonest
of the Ardeidse in Bohemia, arriving in April and leaving in September, nesting even close to the
town of Prague. On the whole, it is not a common species near Cilli, in Styria, because large
reed-patches are wanting ; but Mr. Seidensacher informed me that he found a nest there on the
25th June 1862, quite close to the town. On passage he has seen examples as late as December.
Throughout Austria it is found, being by no means rare in suitable localities ; and in the marshes
of the Lower Danube it nests quite commonly, breeding in colonies with Ardea garzetta and
Arclea ralloides.

In Southern Russia it is almost everywhere a common species. Von Nordmann says that it
frequents the gardens on the banks of streams near Odessa, and along the Salghir ; and, according

263

to Goebel, it is tolerably numerous in the Uman district, where he noticed straggling pairs on
almost all the larger and even smaller ponds overgrown with reeds. They were usually seen
from the middle of April to the first week in October. In Asia Minor and Greece it is also
tolerably numerous. Dr. Kriiper speaks of it as being common in Greece, where it arrives late
in March or early in April, and remains to breed. It does not winter there ; but a young bird in
the Athens Museum was shot as late as the 12th November. According to Lord Lilford (Ibis,
1860, p. 347) the Little Bittern " arrives in considerable numbers in Corfu and Epirus in April,
and remains to breed, leaving the country about the end of September. In Corfu they are often
to be found perched in the olives near the marshes, motionless, with outstretched neck, and beak
pointing to the sky. More than once I have caught this species with my hand ; and my old
retriever often brought me Little Bitterns alive, in the marshes of Butrinto, where I have found
the nest in a tamarisk a few inches above the water. The curious habits of this species make it
an interesting pet, though I have not found it easy to keep it alive for any length of time." It.
is a migrant on the Cyclades, and is said to be common in Crete to about the middle of May,
when it disappears. Canon Tristram met with it in Palestine ; and in North-east Africa it is
found throughout the winter. Von Heuglin is unable to say with certainty if this bird breeds
in North-east Africa; but he met with it in full spring dress in May in the lagoons of Lower
Egypt and near Chartoum, and in June he shot two old and one young bird near Rosetta. In
August, September, and October he met with individuals on passage in Dongola, on the White
Nile and Blue Nile, and one solitary bird in the Gulf of Tedjura. Loche speaks of it as being
common and resident in Algeria ; and Mr. Salvin found it extremely numerous in the marsh of
Zana ; but Favier says that it is the scarcest of the Ardeidse near Tangier, where it occurs on
passage in April and August.

It is also found on the Azores and Madeira, being, according to Mr. Godman, met with on
the central group of the former islands.

How far south it ranges on the continent of Africa I cannot determine, as there is also in
that country another closely allied form, Arietta podicejos, Bp. Mr. Andersson, speaking of
Ardetta minuta, says (B. of Damara Land, p. 293), " I never met with this species in Damara or
Great Namaqua Land ; but it is not uncommon on the rivers Okavango and Teoughe, and also
at Lake Ngami. It inhabits marshy districts, where it hides closely, coming out on the approach
of night to feed on small fish and reptiles, and also on insects and mollusca. It is found singly
or in pairs." Mr. Gurney, also, referring to a specimen shot at Potchefstroom, in the Transvaal,
in February 1872, says, "This specimen was sent to me by Mr. Ayres soon after it was shot; and
I then considered it to be an example of Ardetta podiceps ; but having recently carefully reex-
amined it, and compared it with other specimens, I believe it to be an adult female of the
true Ardetta minuta ; and Mr. Sharpe, to whom I have submitted it, agrees with me in this
opinion."

I am indebted to Canon Tristram for the loan of specimens of Ardetta podiceps from the
Transvaal which differ from Ardetta minuta very perceptibly. An adult male differs in having
the sides of the head, of the neck, and of the hind neck rich foxy red, becoming rather paler
towards the front of the neck ; and it is slightly smaller in size than any of my specimens of
Ardetta minuta. A couple of young males are also more brightly coloured than the young of

264

6

our European bird ; and the neck, especially, is more rufous ; and a still younger bird from the
Cape colony in my own collection is also darker than any of the young of Ardetta minuta.

In Asia the Little Bittern ranges as far east as the Himalayas. Dr. Severtzoff believes that
it breeds in Turkestan ; and Mr. Blanford says (E. Pers. ii. p. 296), "I found the Little Bittern
common in two or three places in Southern Persia and Baluchistan amongst thick bushes and
reeds beside streams. Major St. John told me he had once before met with it in Southern Persia
after an unusually severe winter (as that of 1872 was). Eichwald mentions its occurrence on the
Caspian." Dr. Henderson found it breeding in Cashmere ; and Mr. A. O. Hume writes (Lahore
to Yark. p. 296) : — "This species is found in many parts of the interior of the Himalayas where
much rice is grown. I have it from Nepal, and have shot it at Syree, below Simla, in the upper
valley of the Bias, in Kulu, and in many similar localities, but always in the neighbourhood of
extensive rice cultivation." This gentleman further writes (Stray F. i. p. 256), " I obtained a
single specimen of this species, which I have never before known to occur in India out of the
Himalayas, in a lai'ge broad at Dost Ali, near Larkhana. I was beating a clump of reed, rush,
and tamarisk (a little island, in fact, of these) for Cetti's Warbler ; Coots and Water-hens
innumerable had been driven out, when I observed this queer little Heron creeping about
from bough to bough near the bases of the tamarisk bushes, and shot it. I never saw a second
specimen ; but if it always keeps as close in the daytime as this bird did, this is not to be
wondered at, since after I had secured a certain number of specimens of Cetti's Warbler, I
never again attempted to beat these thickets." In China, Japan, the Philippines, and Celebes
the Little Bittern is replaced by Ardetta sinensis (Gmel.), the male of which differs in having
the back deep brown, not black ; and in America it is replaced by Ardetta exilis.

In general habits the present species is a regular Bittern ; but it is much more active and
graceful in its movements than the Bittern, or even any of the smaller Herons. When standing,
it holds its body erect, the neck being bent and drawn close in towards the body, the beak being
held horizontal ; and it frequently rests on one leg, the other being drawn up into its plumage.
When disturbed, it prefers to glide away amongst the dense aquatic foliage rather than take
wing, and is very hard to flush. It climbs about amongst the reeds or the branches of trees
with the greatest ease, and slips with celerity through the densest reed thickets. Its flight is
different from that of any of its allies ; for it uses its wings much more powerfully, and not only
flies swiftly, but it can turn and twist on the wing with tolerable ease. It is, however, very shy
and secretive in its habits, and is but seldom seen away from the densely overgrown marshy
places where it takes up its abode, except in the dusk of the evening, when it appears to fear
intrusion less than in the daytime. It feeds chiefly by night, and eats small fish, aquatic insects
of various kinds, small frogs, and but seldom shell-fish or worms.

The call-note of the male during the breeding-season is not unlike that of the Bittern, but
is much softer, and resembles the syllables bum, bum, uttered two or three times slowly in
succession ; and the female when disturbed utters a note resembling the words gett, gett, gett.

The nest of the Little Bittern is a somewhat heavy and clumsy structure of aquatic plants,
often intermixed with twigs in the foundation, and lined with finer grasses or flags ; it is placed
either near or far from the shore, less frequently on the ground than a little distance above it,
and always well hidden in marshy damp localities. Blasius says that all the nests he has taken

265

were placed amongst reeds over very shallow water, not a foot above the ground ; and, according
to Gloger, it very frequently utilizes a deserted Magpie's nest which has been built on a shrub in
a willowy marsh, or on a thorn hedge between pools.

The eggs, from five to nine in number, are very small, less in size even than Pigeons' eggs,
and are rather elongated oval in shape, dull, and devoid of gloss, bluish white in colour ; but
when blown they fade to a dull white tint.

The female sits very closely for sixteen or seventeen days, and even when the young are
hatched she still sits to protect them ; and both parents exhibit the greatest solicitude for their
offspring until they are able to take care of themselves.

The specimens figured are the adult male and female above described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, $ ad. Southern France, April 1878 (Schluter). b, ? ad. Italy (Schluter). c, d . Malta, May 1867 (C. A.
Wright), d, S ad. Albania (H. Barclay). e, /, ?. Algeria (Fairmaire). y, 6. Tunis (Fairmuire).

E Mus. Brit. Reg.
a > 6 > b>2 • North Africa.

E Mus. E. Hargitt.
a. Havre, October 10th, 1872. b. Noury, France, c, ? . Noury, July 1874 (Plilche).

E Mus. H. B. Tristram,
a. Bougazoul, Sahara, June 2nd, 1856. b. Lake Huleh, Palestine, May 6th, 1864 (H. B. T.).

E Mus. C. A. Wright.
a, 6. Malta, April 25th, 1874 (C. A. W.).

E Mus. Howard Saunders.
a,d,b,2. Near Seville, April 12th {H. S.) . c,6 . Malaga, July 28th. d, 6 juv. Valencia, October 15th
(ft. Martin).

5z

266

267

Genus NYCTICORAX.

Ardea apud Brisson, Orn. v. p. 412 (1760)
Nycticorax, Stephens in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xi. p. 609 (1819).
Nyctiardea apud Swainson, Classif. of B. ii. p. 355 (1837).
Nycterodius apud Macgillivray, Man. Brit. B. ii. p. 127 (1842).

The Night-Herons inhabit the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian, Nearctic, and Neo-
tropical Regions, only one species being found in the Western Palsearctic Region.

The Night-Herons are tolerably closely allied to the Bitterns, but are of a more robust
build, and more active in their general habits. They frequent the neighbourhood of water ; for
they feed on fish, reptiles, and aquatic insects. They climb amongst the dense aquatic herbage
and the branches of trees with great ease, and frequently rest perched on the top of a high tree.
Their flight is soft and noiseless ; but though sedate, it is tolerably swift ; and their note is a harsh
croak. They are about both by day and by night, and are said to search after food often all
through the night.

They construct their nests of twigs lined with aquatic plants, fine roots, &c, and deposit
blue eggs. The nests are placed either on trees or bushes, or amongst dense reed-thickets.

Nycticorax griseus, the type of the genus, has the bill scarcely longer than the head, stout,
nearly straight, the upper mandible curved gradually to the tip, which is acute ; nostrils linear ■
wings broad and full, the first quill about equal to the fourth, the second and third nearly equal ;
tail short, even ; legs long, rather stout ; tibia bare for about one fourth of its length ; tarsus
anteriorly scutellate; toes long, scutellate; claws moderately long, slightly curved, acute, that
on the middle toe serrated on the inner edge ; plumage soft, full, feathers on the occiput long,
narrow, forming a pendent crest.

m

268

402

4t
5

JGEealeiaans Tith

NIGHT- HERON.
NYCTICORAX GRISEUS.

i HanharL imp

269

NYCTICOKAX GRISEUS.

(NIGHT-HEEON.)

Ardea grisea, Briss. Orn. v. p. 412, pi. 36. fig. 1 (1760).

Ardea mexicana cristata, Briss. torn. cit. p. 418 (1760).

Ardea botaurus ncevius, Briss. torn. cit. p. 462 (1760).

Ardea nycticorax, Briss. torn. cit. p. 493, pi. 39 (1760); Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 235 (1766, ex

Briss.).
Ardea grisea, Linn. torn. cit. p. 239 (1766, ex Briss.).
Le Pouacre de Cayenne, D'Aubenton, PI. Enl. no. 939 (1770).
Ardea kwakvoa, S. G. Gmel. Nov. Com. Petr. xv. p. 452, pi. 14 (1771).
Ardea ferruginea, S. G. Gmel. torn. cit. p. 456, pi. 16 (1771).
Le Bilioreau, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. vii. p. 435, pi. xxii. (1780).
Le Butor tachete ou Pouacre, Buff. torn. cit. p. 427 (1780).
LHocti, Buff. torn. cit. p. 382 (1780).

Ardea cyanocephala, Molina, Sagg. Stor. Natural. Chili, p. 344 (1782).
Ardea ncevia, Bodd. Tabl. PI. Enl. p. 56 (1783, ex D'Aub.).
Jamaica Night-Heron, Lath. Syn. iii. p. 54. no. 14 (1785).
Ardea gar deni, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 645 (1788).
Ardea maculata, Gmel. ut supra (1788, ex Briss.).
Ardea jamacensis, Gmel. torn. cit. p. 625 (1788, ex Lath.).
Ardea hoactli, Gmel. torn. cit. p. 630 (1788, ex Briss.).
La Tayazu-Guird, Azara, Apunt. iii. p. 173. no. 357 (1805).
Nycticorax europams, Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xi. p. 609 (1819).
Ardea tayazaquira, Vieill. Encycl. Method, iii. p. 1130 (1823, ex Azara).
Ardea sexsetacea, Vieill. torn. cit. p. 1129 (1823).
Nycticorax vulgaris, Ehr. Symb. Phys. fol. m (1828).
Nycticorax brevipes, Ehr. ut supra (1828).

Nycticorax orientalis, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 592 (1831).
Nycticorax badius, C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 592 (1831).
Nycticorax meridionalis, C. L. Brehm, ut supra (1831).
Nycticorax gardeni (Gm.), Jardine, in Wils. Am. Orn. iii. p. 5 (1832).
Ardea discors, Nutt. Man. Orn. U. S. ii. p. 54 (1834).
Nyctiardea europwa (Steph.), Swains. Classif. of B. ii. p. 355 (1837).
Nycticorax americanus, Bp. Comp. List, p. 48 (1838).

Ardea (Scotaeus) nycticorax (L.), Keys. & Bias. Wirbelth. Eur. p. 80 (1840).
Nycticorax ardeola, Temm. Man. d'Orn. iv. p. 384 (1840).
Nycterodius nycticorax (L.), Macg. Man. Brit. B. ii. p. 127 (1842).
Nycticorax griseus (L.), Gray, Gen. of B. iii. p. 558 (1847).

270

Nycticorax ncevius (Bodd.), Gray, Gen. of B. iii. p. 558 (1847).

Scotaeus nycticorax (L.), Heugl. Syst. Uebers. Vog. N.O.-Afr. p. 59 (1856).

Scotaeus guttatus, Heugl. ut supra (1856).

Nyctiardea gardeni (Gm.), Baird, B. N. Am. p. 678 (1858).

Nycticorax cegyptius, Gurney, in Anderss. B. of Damara L. p. 293 (1872).

Nyctiardea nycticorax (L.), Swinhoe, P. Z. S. 1872, p. 413.

Heron bihoreau, French ; Nitticora, Italian ; Quach, Maltese ; Nachtreiher, nachtlicher
Rohrdommel, German ; Kwak, Dutch ; Natheire, Danish ; Kwa/cwa, Russian.

Figure notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PL Enl. 758, 759, 939; Werner, Atlas, Coureurs, pi. 27; Kjserb. Orn. Dan.
taf. 32, Suppl. taf. 14; Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 203, 203; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 40.
figs. 6, 7 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 225 ; Sundevall, Svensk, Fogl. pi. 75. figs. 4, 5 ;
Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 279; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 26; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pis. 193,
194; Roux, Orn. Prov. pis. 317, 318; Audub. B. of Am. pi. 363; Wilson, Am. Orn.
pi. 61. fig. 2.

Ad. pileo, dorso et scapularibus nigris viridi metallico nitentibus, plumis nucb.se tribus valde elongatis et
angustatis, niveis : fronte et stria superciliari albis : tergo, alis et cauda cervino-cinereis : gula, alba :
corpore subtus albo vix cinereo-cervino tincto : rostro nigro, ad basin flavido : pedibus viridi-flavis :
iride rubra.

Juv. pileo et nucha sordide fuscis rufescente cervino et albido striatis : corpore supra saturate umbrino-fusco,
dorso sneo nitente et ubique albo guttato : remigibus secundariis et tectricibus alarum versus apicem
conspicue albo notatis : mento albo, gutture et corpore subtus sordide albidis fusco-striatis, gutture et
pectore ocbraceo lavatis.

Adult Male (Malta). Forehead and a line over tbe eye wbite, crown and nape black with a greyish tinge,
and glossed witb blue and bottle-green ; featbers on tbe nape elongated, and tbree or more very long,
narrow, wbite feathers extend from tbe nape ; back and scapulars black glossed witb bottle-green or
bluish purple ; rest of the upper parts, the wings, and the tail ashy dove-grey or dull dove-blue with a
buffy tinge ; edge of the wing nearly white ; chin, throat, and sides of the head white, the latter washed
with vinous buff; rest of the underparts white slightly tinged with ashy grey, the flanks washed with
buffy dove-grey ; bill blackish ; lore bluish grey with a yellow tinge ; legs dull ochreous yellow ; iris
deep red. Total length about 21 inches, gape B'7, wing 11/4, tail 4-7, tarsus 3 - 05.

Young (Foochow, November) . Crown and nape dull brown striped with rufous buff and white ; upper parts
generally dark warm earth-brown, the back with a bronze tinge, and conspicuously spotted with white,
these spots being largest on the tips of the wing-coverts and secondaries ; tail brownish ash-grey ; under-
parts dull white, on the throat and breast washed with warm ochreous buff, and almost everywhere
closely striped with dark brown ; chin nearly pure white ; iris reddish yellow ; lores pale yellowish green,
becoming blue towards the bill; base of the lower mandible light yellowish green; legs dull yellowish
green ; claws pale brown.

Obs. A rather older bird, which I have figured, is much less spotted on the upper parts, which are paler ;

271

and there is in many parts a tendency to assume the colours of the adult ; the underparts are also paler,
and considerably less striped than the young example. Mr. Swinhoe gives an excellent description of
the young bird in nestling-plumage (Ibis, 1861, p. 54), which I transcribe as follows : —

" In the smaller chick procured the eye was just opened, and of no determined colour. The bill and lore
were of a yellowish flesh-colour, very pale, and tinged with blue. The legs of a similar colour, with
pale claws. The head and back were covered with a long blackish down, and the rest of the body with
more or less whitish down, somewhat resembling sheep's wool. The black down on the head was drawn
out into long white tufts, which stood out from the head like a crown of thick threads.

"In the larger chick the eye was of a pale sea-green; the lore and bill were tinged with yellowish green.
The long down of the head had opened out into filamentous ends. The legs were bluish sea-green
above, and sienna-yellow beneath. The bare skin of the round projecting belly was sea-green, as also
the dorsal skin. The colour of the down was light purplish grey, tipped with white on the crown, and
giving place to white on the flanks and belly."

As a rule, the adult bird has three long occipital white plumes ; but some specimens have four, six, and even
occasionally as many as eight or ten of these plumes. My artist, Mr. Keulemans, has a sketch of
one he had for examination, which had ten plumes, which he has utilized in drawing the Plate of
this species.

After a careful examination of specimens from various parts of the world, I cannot find any valid reason for
separating them specifically. In fact the only difference is in size, the American bird being the largest;
and those from China the smallest. Three fully adult males measure as follows : viz. one from New
Brunswick measures — gape 4'05, wing 12 - 5, tail 4 - 7, tarsus 3"25 ; one from Europe — gape 3 - 7, wing 1T4,
tail 4*7, tarsus 3"05 ; and one from China — gape 3"55, wing 10 - 35, tail 4 - 0, tarsus 3'0.

The fully adult plumage is only gradually assumed ; and, so far as I can judge, the bird does not attain its
full beauty of dress until it is three or four years old.

The present species is chiefly to be met with in the southern and eastern portions of our
continent, and but seldom occurs in Northern Europe. In Africa it is found as far south as the
Cape of Good Hope ; in Asia east to Japan, and south into the Malay archipelago ; and in
America from the Northern United States down to Central America.

To us in Great Britain the Night-Heron is only known as a rare straggler ; but it has been
observed so often that it may almost be looked on as an annual visitor. I doubt, however, the
statement made by Mr. Harting that there is reason to believe that it used formerly to nest
regularly in England. Yarrell remarks (Brit. B. ii. p. 583) that it has been killed in Sussex, Dor-
setshire, Devonshire, Cornwall, Lancashire, Flintshire, Anglesea, Bucks, Bedfordshire, Oxford-
shire, Suffolk, Norfolk, Hants, and Yorkshire. Mr. Stevenson says, in his work on the Birds of
Norfolk, that " the earliest record of its occurrence in that county is that of the late Sir W.
Hooker, to the effect that one was shot by Mr. Stagg, iu Yarmouth, about the year 1800. We
have next," he adds, " the evidence of Messrs. Paget, in 1834, that Mr. Youell had known six or
seven of them to have been killed in that locality at different times, and in Mr. Hunt's list
another at Holkham — the latter, according to Messrs. Sheppard and Whitear, in 1819. Again
on the 24th May 1824, from a fruit-tree out of the North Gates at Yarmouth, was shot the
memorable specimen which, first recorded by Mr. Youell in the Linnean Society's ' Transactions '
(vol. xiv. p. 588) as the Cayenne Night-Heron (Ardea cayennensis, Linn.), was, as such, included
by Selby in his ' Illustrations of British Ornithology.' This bird, however, which is now in
Mr. Gurney's collection, and was purchased by him from the late Mr. Thurtell, of Eaton, has

272

been long since established as only a very fine adult specimen of Nycticorax griseus. In the
same winter of 1824, according to some notes recently supplied me by Mr. Rising, of Horsey, no
less than three specimens of this Heron were killed on the North Denes, at Yarmouth ; and
another, in his own collection, was shot by his father about two hundred yards from the front of
his residence at Horsey in April 1827. Since that time this species has become an extremely
rare visitant to our coast, the only recent instance to my knowledge being an immature bird
killed on the 8th of November 1860, in the Caister marshes near Yarmouth." According to
Mr. Cordeaux a specimen was killed a few years ago near Cottingham, about five miles from
Beverley, Yorkshire ; and Mr. Hancock says it is a very rare and casual visitant to Northumber-
land and Durham. One was shot (fide T. H. Gibb, Berw. Natur. Club, 1870, p. 174) on the 24th
November near the confluence of the Cawledge burn with the Aln. In Scotland it is also seldom
seen. Sir William Jardine states that two were shot by the Earl of Home, near Coldstream, in
1823 ; and one in his own collection was killed on the banks of the Cluden, in Dumfriesshire, in
1825. Mr. Robert Gray records the occurrence of one at Menie, about eight miles north of
Aberdeen, on the 9th of January 1866 ; and he adds that his friend the late Dr. R. D. Thomson
mentions it as a rare visitor to the parish of Eccles, in Berwickshire.

In Ireland, Thompson says (B. of Irel. ii. p. 173), "it is of very rare occurrence. One
which I saw in the shop of Mr. Glennon, bird-preserver, Dublin, in March 1834, and noticed
in the ' Proceedings of the Zoological Society ' for that year (p. 30), was stated by him to have
been sent in fresh condition from Letterkenny, in the county of Donegal. It was at the same
time mentioned that two or three other examples, killed in Ireland, had been sent to him.
Subsequently he informed me of the occurrence of another individual."

There is a single instance of the occurrence of the Night-Heron in the Fseroes, an immature
male having been shot at Nordedhal, on the island of Stromoe, in July 1870 ; but, so far as I
can ascertain, it has not straggled so far as Norway or Finland ; but Dr. Sundstrom informs me
that a young female was shot in Skane, Sweden, in 1863 ; and it is said to be of but rare occur-
rence in Central Russia. Artzibascheff, however, states that it is very common on the Lower
Volga, especially near the mouth of that river. It is much less frequently found on the Sarpa.

In Poland, according to Mr. Taczanowski, it passes regularly in summer, and is, as a rule,
rare, though in some seasons tolerably numerous. In North Germany it used formerly to be by
no means uncommon, and it is stated to breed there now and again, but not regularly. Some
years ago about eight pairs bred on the Seeburger Lake, near Gottingen, but were shot down.
Boeck obtained two pairs in Prussia about the middle of May. According to Naumann (Naturg.
Vog. Deutschl. ix. p. 155) it nested formerly in abundance in the Spreewald, in Niederlausitz,
but is now no longer found there ; and some years previously several pairs bred in a heronry near
Oderberg ; but the Cormorants took possession of this nesting-place, and drove out both them
and the Herons. At present, Mr. Schalow writes (J. f. O. 1876, p. 17), it is only a straggler to
Mark Brandenburg from the south-east. Schulz obtained one from Neumark ; there is a spe-
cimen from Mark in a small collection at Grunewald ; and a female from Spandau is in the
Berlin Museum.

According to Collin there are several instances of its occurrence in Denmark. One was shot
at Neunriinster, in Holstein, in May 1821 ; and about the same time Teilmann shot one at Ribe ;

27a

Mechlenburg records the occurrence of one on Sylt; and some years ago a pair were shot at
Elbbredden. There is a specimen from Brunsbiittel in Woldike's collection, and one in Mr. Uwe
Petersen's collection, shot on Sylt.

In Holland it used formerly to be tolerably common ; but now it is of but rare occurrence
there, as well as in Belgium, on passage. In the north of France it occurs only on passage, but
breeds in the southern portions of that country. Degland says that he possesses a specimen shot
near Lille in April, and has seen an adult bird which was killed near Calais in May. According
to M. Adrien Lacroix it occurs on passage in the spring and autumn in the French Pyrenees ;
and a few pairs remain to breed in Herault. It occurs in Portugal, but does not appear to be
very common in any part of the country, though in Spain, as Lord Lilford informs me, it
is numerous in many localities; and Mr. Saunders writes (Ibis, 1871, p. 392), it is "very
abundant in the marshes of the Cotos, where it breeds in colonies on small trees. In a clump
of bushes rather than trees, near the Palace of the Coto del Rey, I saw dozens of old nests, at
elevations of from five to fifteen feet from the ground, the construction being but a trifle
more substantial than that of a Ringdove, though somewhat larger." In Andalucia, Colonel Irby
says (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 187), " these Herons are entirely migratory, chiefly arriving in April; but
I have no date of their autumnal departure, and never observed any very near to Gibraltar.
About the district of Seville they are common, nesting in companies on trees on the Rocina, near
Rocio, and on the banks of rivers — like the other smaller Herons, breeding rather late. The
Night-Heron, as its name implies, is a nocturnal-feeding bird, frequenting trees by day, and if
disturbed usually flying from one tree to another ; but I have scarcely ever seen them on the
move by day, unless frightened up." In the Balearic Isles the present species is quite as
numerous as the common Heron; and it is found in all the countries skirting the Mediterranean.
According to Salvadori it is tolerably common in Italy on passage ; and Dr. Giglioli says (Ibis,
1865, p. 60) that near Pisa " the Night-Herons arrive in May ; they are mostly adult individuals ;
and after dusk their melancholy ' qua-a ' may often be heard along the Arno, while their white
ghost-like silhouettes may be seen through the increasing gloom stalking about on the sandbanks
in the river. The long white feathers which form the occipital crest in this species vary much
in number. I got a specimen with as many as six ; three is, I believe, the ordinary number."
In Sicily, Malta, and Sardinia it passes regularly ; and on the Lake of Cagliari Salvadori saw
numbers even in winter. It is said to breed in Northern Italy.

In Southern Germany it is tolerably common, becoming more so in the eastern portions.
Dr. Anton Fritsch writes (J. f. O. 1871, p. 392) that it visits Bohemia almost every year; and
according to E. Purkyne it has been found breeding near Weisswasser. Old birds as well as
young have been killed near Pardubic (Hromadko), near Podebrad (Hoffmann), near Jicin, in
the forest of the Stribrnitz district, at the Zvolenov pond near Frauenberg, and Grosstisi near
Wittingau. Von Tschusi-Schmidhofen says that there are two specimens in the Carol. Aug.
Museum ; and according to Dr. Storch one was shot at Gastein in April, and a second at
Huttau in November 1872. According to Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown (Ibis, 1875,
p. 425), " this species is migratory and not uncommon in Transylvania ; at Zah we found a large
colony, which was chiefly composed of adult birds with a small sprinkling of immature examples.
They had not begun to breed when we left in the middle of May. In the Klausenburg Museum

274

is a specimen with four crest-feathers." In Hungary and in many localities along the Danube I
found the Night-Heron very generally distributed ; and near Belgrade, I was told, there are some
numerously frequented breeding-places. In the low portions of Wallachia and in Bulgaria it is
also far from uncommon, and breeds in suitable localities ; and Dr. Kruper states that it arrives
in Greece later than the Purple Heron and Egret, usually appearing in April ; but he is unaware
if it remains there to breed.

In Southern Russia, as above stated, it is tolerably numerous ; and Mr. Goebel, in his Notes
on the Ornithology of the Uman District, remarks (J. f. O. 1871, p. 143), "There is a large
colony of this species on some high alder and oak trees growing on an island in the Sokolow
swamp. This island can be visited in a boat till the beginning of May ; later it is unapproachable,
which accounts for my not having yet been able to obtain a clutch of eggs. On smaller swamps
and ponds it is only seen during migration. I observed on a very small swamp a flock of at least
fifty individuals on the 27th of April 1867, thirty on the 5th of October 1868, and twelve on the
1st of October 1869."

I find but little on record respecting the occurrence of the Night-Heron in Asia Minor ; but
Canon Tristram met with it in Palestine, where, he remarks, it resorted chiefly to the outskirts
of the swamps. In Africa it is found breeding as far south as the Cape colony. Captain Shelley
writes that it is " abundant throughout Egypt, usually in flocks, frequenting clumps of sont and
palm trees. They are not shy, and are often difficult to drive out of the thicker-foliaged trees.
When disturbed they rise awkwardly, a few at a time ; but when once fairly started they mount
high, and fly for a considerable distance." Von Heuglin speaks of the Night-Heron as being one
of the commonest species in North-east Africa, and he believes that it breeds there, though he
never found a breeding colony. In January, February, and March he saw vast flocks on the Blue
and White Nile, as also on the Lower Sobat, and in April on Lake Tana, in Abyssinia. In May
he met with individuals in full breeding-dress in Abyssinia. In Algeria it is tolerably common.
Mr. Salvin only observed it on the lake at Bizerta ; but it has been recorded from several other
localities ; and Canon Tristram met with it in the palm-forests of Tuggurt, but adds that it is
probably found throughout the whole of the Wed B/hir. Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake records it from
Tetuan ; and according to Favier (fide Colonel Irby) it is common near Tangier on passage.
Colonel Irby himself saw this species near Larache in April, and near Tetuan at the end of
March. It is stated by Vernon Harcourt to occur in Madeira ; but Mr. Godman does not include
it. On the west coast of Africa it has been obtained in Senegambia, Bissao, the Gaboon, Gold-
coast, and Benguela. Mr. Sharpe received a specimen from Fantee ; and Mr. Ussher observes
that it is common on the Winebah river, but he did not meet with it elsewhere. In the ' Birds
of Damara Land,' p. 293, Mr. Andersson writes: — "This species is pretty frequent in the lake-
country ; it occurs in Ondonga in the wet season, and is recorded as having been obtained on
the Orange river. In Damara Land I have only observed it very rarely, and always in irnrnature
plumage. It feeds on fish, reptiles, aquatic insects, slugs, &c." According to Mr. E. L. Layard
(B. S. Afr. p. 312) it is generally distributed throughout the Cape colony, but is nowhere
common. A young bird, still having remains of down in its plumage, was brought to him from
Zeekoe Vley, on the Simons-Bay road ; so it must certainly breed near there. It occurs, though
very seldom, in Natal; Mr. Ayres met with it in the Transvaal; and Dr. Kirk states (Ibis, 1864,

275

p. 333) that in the Zambesi region it is common in all marshes, and roosts among the reeds on
the islands, and it is stated to inhabit Madagascar, where, however, it is rare.

In Asia the Night-Heron ranges eastward to Japan, and south to the Malay archipelago.
Menetries met with it at Lenkoran; Mr. Blanford saw it at Isfahan; and Major St. John found
a colony inhabiting a large cypress tree in a garden at Firiizabad, eighty miles south of Shiraz,
in the winter of 1866-67. Mr. Hume often observed it in Sindh; and according to Dr. Jerdon
(B. of India, ii. p. 759), " the Night-Heron is found throughout India, is very common in many
parts of the country, but is somewhat local in its distribution. During the day it roosts in palm-
groves, tamarind-trees, and patches of jungle near water, issuing forth soon after sunset, and
winging its way towards its feeding-ground, uttering at intervals its well-known cry ivah-wak,
which has been given as its name throughout the greater part of India." Dr. Henderson found
it abundant in the lower valley of Cashmere ; according to Mr. Holdsworth (P. Z. S. 1872, p. 478)
it is not uncommon in Ceylon in suitable localities ; and Davison met with it on Trinkut Island,
Nicobars. Eastward it is common in China, breeding in the interior to Pekin ; and Mr. Swinhoe
noticed it also on the island of Formosa. It is also, according to Von Siebold, numerous in
Japan. Meyen records it from Manilla; and I have seen examples from the Philippines.

In America the Night-Heron is widely distributed. I found it rare in New Brunswick ; but
it is said to breed abundantly in the New England States ; and Mr. C. H. Merriman states that
it is a common summer resident in Connecticut, remaining into October. It winters in the
Southern States and Central America. I found it tolerably common in those portions of Texas
I visited; Messrs. Sclater and Salvin record it (Ibis, 1859, p. 227) from Central America; and
Mr. A. von Frantzius writes (J. f. O. 1869, p. 376), "This Night-Heron, which ranges in South
America from the Argentine provinces to Guiana, is very rare in Costa Rica ; to my knowledge
it has been shot there only on one occasion." Further south in America it is replaced by a
closely allied species, Nycticorax obscurus (Licht.). It is also found in the West Indies ; and
Dr. Gundlach says that it is found in Cuba throughout the year, and undoubtedly breeds there.

The Night-Heron, as its name implies, is, to a large extent, nocturnal in its habits, though
not altogether so ; for it is not unfrequently found prowling about during the day. As a rule,
however, I have discovered them hidden away in some densely foliaged tree during the brighter
portions of the day ; but so soon as it begins to get dusk they appear to regain their activity, and
sally forth in search of food. I have generally found it amongst trees, and less seldom in low
bushes or rushes, but always in some damp, swampy locality; and it appears, as a rule, to sit
on a large branch with its neck drawn in and body elevated, and will remain for long in the
same position if undisturbed. It is shy and suspicious, avoiding the vicinity of inhabited places,
and resorting to localities where it is seldom molested or disturbed by man, except in those
countries where it is protected and held sacred, as in China. Mr. Swinhoe gives a most graphic
description of one of these colonies at Canton (Ibis, 1861, p. 53): — "This is the sacred bird
of the great Honam Temple, Canton. The court-yard in front of this temple contains some
venerable banyans, as well as a few towering cotton-trees (Bombax malabaricum). On the higher
branches of the former the small flat wicker nests of the Night-Heron may be seen in all direc-
tions, some only a foot or so from others ; and the croaking and flapping and fighting that goes
on overhead bears some distant resemblance to the crowded deck of an emigrant steamer on first

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8

encountering a turbid sea. The granite slabs that form the pavement beneath these trees are so
bedaubed with the droppings of old and young, that permission to scrape them clean daily might
prove a fine speculation for the guano-collector. The birds, from the protection afforded them,
were remarkably tame, and we could stand beneath the trees and watch them without their
evincing the slightest fear. This was in April. Some might be seen sitting on their nests, with
their long legs bent under them, the weight of their bodies resting for the most part on the
tarsal joint ; others standing on single leg close by, with shortened neck, the beak and head
occasionally moving partially round as on a pivot ; others flapped to and fro, ruffling up their
head-gear, and occasionally sparring together. In their various movements the dark green-black
of the head and back with the thin snow-white occipital streamers flowing and quivering over
the latter gave a quaint though not ungainly look to the birds. From some of the nests we
heard a subdued chattering like the cry of young ; and it was to feed these hungry mouths that
the parents were constantly leaving the trees to seek for food at all times of the day ; while others
were returning with supplies. As the sun set, however, they became more active. While I sat
watching them from a neighbouring roof-top in the evening, numbers of them emerged from the
leafy darkness, and one by one settled on the stark bare outstanding arms of the cotton-tree.
After resting for a little time like gaunt spectres on the tree-top, off they went, one after the
other, with a ' kwa ' — seldom more than two in the same direction. As darkness set in, manv
returned, and the noise and hubbub from the trees rose to a fearful pitch. Until night hid them
from my view, I could see the old birds going and coming, and hear the clamour of the young.
What kind of nocturnal slumbers the priests enjoyed in the temple below, I never took the
trouble to inquire, though I have little doubt that, from constant use, the noise of these croakers
has become quite essential to their good night's rest.

" Though these birds moved about very much during the day, yet it strikes me that twilight
is the most active time with them, and that in most instances the departures during the day
were to seek food for the newly-hatched young, which would require feeding oftener at first, and
perhaps with more choice food.

" I sent my man up one of the trees, whence he brought down three nests, two of which
contained eggs, and the third, two young birds and one egg. Judging from their size, one of
these little birds must have been born at least three days before the other ; and on opening the
egg I found a live chick inside, which would have required at least two days before it could have
ventured out. The varying stages of the embryos in the other six eggs confirmed this idea. I
should say the differences between them could not have been more than six days, and certainly
not less than three ; so that the Night-Heron must commence sitting on the first egg laid, and,
while engaged in its incubation, keep on laying, at fixed intervals, the other two, which form
the complement."

The flight of the Night-Heron is silent and soft like that of an Owl ; and when on the wing
the bird draws its neck in so that it looks quite short, and carries its legs stretched out behind.
Its call-note, which consists of a harsh croak resembling the syllable JcwaJc, is seldom uttered
during the daytime ; but at night this bird is rather noisy than otherwise, especially at its
breeding-places. It perches and walks about on the thin branches of trees with ease, and will
step easily, though sedately, along a slender branch without using its wings or losing its balance

277

9

in the least. It climbs about also, like its allies, in the dense reed-jungles and amongst high
rushes, with great facility, grasping the stems of the water-plants with its long claws.

As a rule, the Night-Heron is a tree-breeder ; for though its nest is occasionally placed on
low bushes, it is generally built at some altitude in a tree. It is a larger or smaller structure
according to circumstances, rather flat in shape, built of dried twigs and thin branches, and lined
with leaves of aquatic plants, fine rootlets, &c; and the eggs, four or five in number, resemble
those of the common Heron, but are much smaller and paler. In colour they are pale greenish
blue, uniform in tinge, and dull, without any gloss ; and those in my collection vary in size from
24TT by IU inch to 2-/ - by 1J& inch.

The specimens figured are an old male and a young bird, both European-killed specimens.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens: —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a,<3. Southern Europe. h,dad. S.W. Formosa, China, 1861 (R. Swinhoe). c,ad. S.W. Formosa, 1866. d,juv.
Foochow, November 1866 {Swinhoe). e, 2 . Laguna de Bai, Philippines, December 14th, 1877 {Everett).
f, ad. St. Stephen's, New Brunswick, 1864 {G. A. Boardman).

E Mus. C. A. Wright. ,
a, ad. Malta, b, <S juv. Malta, June 16th, 1862 (C. A. TV.).

E Mus. Salvin et Goclman.
a, 2- Medellin, U. S. of Columbia, 1876 {Salmon), b. Choctum, Guatemala, 1861. c. Guatemala.

278

279

Genus BOTAURUS.

Ardea apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 239 (1766).
Botaurus, Stephens in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xi. p. 593 (1819).
Nycticorax apud Ehrenberg, Symb. Phys. Av. fol. m (1828).
Butor apud Swainson, Classif. of B. ii. p. 354 (1837).

The Bitterns differ from their allies chiefly in having the body much compressed ; the feathers on
the neck are also much elongated ; the head is oblong and much compressed, the legs short, and
the toes and claws very long They inhabit the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian,
Nearctic, and Neotropical Regions, two species being found in the Western Palaearctic Region,
one as a resident, the second [Botaurus lentiginosus) being only a rare straggler from the
American continent.

These birds frequent marshy localities, where, being habitually secretive and shy, resting
hidden by day, they are seldom seen. They are nocturnal in their habits, commencing to move
about when the shades of evening set in. Their flight is soft and noiseless ; and they seldom
fly far. Their call in the spring is a peculiarly weird, loud, booming sound, like the distant
bellowing of a bull ; but their usual note is a clear, loud croak. They feed on reptiles, fish,
aquatic insects, and small mammals.

They breed in marshes, their nest being a mere collection of aquatic herbage, placed on the
ground amongst the reeds ; and their eggs are uniform olivaceous in colour.

Botaurus stellaris, the type of the genus, has the bill longer than the head, compressed,
tapering to a sharp point, gape-line straight, upper mandible slightly notched at the tip, nostrils
linear; space in front of the eye bare; wings large and full, the first three quills nearly equal,
inner secondaries nearly as long as the longest primaries ; tail short, even ; legs moderately long,
stout, and strong ; tarsus with broad anterior scutelhe ; toes very long and strong, scutellate
above ; claws long, stout, slightly curved, acute, that on the middle toe scutellate on the inner
edge ; plumage very full and soft, feathers on the sides and lower part of the neck much
elongated, the former directed obliquely backwards so as to cover the hind neck, which is over-
grown with soft down only.

132

280

403

BITTERN

30TAURUS STELLARIS.

281

BOTAUEUS STELLAEIS.

(BITTERN.)

Ardea botaurus, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 444 (1760).
Ardea stellaris, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 239 (1766).
Le Butor, Buffon, Hist. Nat. Ois. vii. p. 411, pi. xxi. (1780).
Botaurus stellaris (L.), Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xi. p. 593 (1819).
Nycticorax stellaris (L.), Ehr. Symb. Phys. Av. fol. m (1828).
Botaurus lacustris, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 596 (1831).
Botaurus arundinaceus, C. L. Brehm, torn. cit. p. 596 (1831).
Butor stellaris (L.), Swainson, Classif. of Birds, ii. p. 354 (1837).
Ardea stellaris capensis, Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Ardeas, p. 48 (1863).

Le Grand Butor, French ; Gallinhola real, Portuguese ; Avetoro, Cangrejera, Spanish ;
Garza stellare, Tarabuso, Italian ; Coppun imperial, Maltese ; Bohrdommel, Rohrdumj),
German ; Roerdomp, Dutch ; Stor Rordrum, Danish ; Rordrum, Swedish ; Chepura-
Wuipp, Russian; Kul-buga (Water-bull), Bashkir.

Figurce notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PL Enl. 789; Werner, Atlas, Gralles, pi. 1; Kjaerb. Orn. Dan. taf. xxxii. ;
Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 205 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 37. fig. 6 ; Naumann, Vog.
Deutschl. taf. 226 ; Sundevall, Sv. Fogl. pi. 46. fig. 5 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 280 ; id. B.
of G. B. iv. pi. 27; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pi. 195; Roux, Orn. Prov. pi. 319.

Ad. pileo et nucha nigris, nuchae pluniis rufescente ochraceo apicatis : corpore supra rufescenti-ochraceo,
ubique nigro-fusco notato : dorsi plumis et scapularibus centraliter nitide nigris : remigibus et rectri-
cibus castaneis, nigro-fusco fasciatis : mento ochrascenti-albido, centraliter et lateraUter lineis fuscis
notato : collo et pectore plumis elongatis rufescenti-ochraceis nigro-fusco fasciatis et notatis indutis :
corpore subtus pallide ochraceo, vix rufescente lavato, plumis omnibus centraliter castaneis et nigro-
fusco marmoratis : subalaribus rufescentibus nigro-fusco fasciatis : rostro viridi-flavo : iride flava :
pedibus viridibus, unguibus nigricantibus.

Juv. adulto similis sed ubique pallidior et brunnescentior.

Adult Male (Holland) . Crown and nape black, the feathers on the latter tipped with warm ochreous ;
lower neck pale yellowish rufous, irregularly barred with blackish ; back and scapulars shining black,
broadly but irregularly margined with yellowish rufous, many of the feathers marbled with pale
rufous ; quills rich chestnut-red, irregularly but tolerably closely barred with blackish ; wing-coverts
warm clay-colour, variegated with chestnut-red and blackish ; tail chestnut- red, marbled and blotched
with black ; chin buffy white, with a dark brown streak down the centre ; from the base of the bill on
each side runs a dark brown broad streak ; entire neck and breast covered with long feathers, which
on the side of the neck are yellowish buff barred with wide V-shaped blackish bars, and in front and on

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the breast are warm clay-coloured with broad central streaks of dark rufous marbled with blackish ;
rest of the underparts warm yellowish buff, streaked with broad lines of blackish brown ; under wing-
coverts rufous buff, barred with blackish brown ; bill greenish yellow ; legs yellowish green, almost
grass-green; claws blackish; iris yellowish. Total length about 26 inches, culmen 2 - 8, gape 355,
wing 11*7, tail 4 - 45, tarsus 35, bare portion of tibia l - 45.

Female. Similar to the male, but less in size.

Young. Resembles the adult, but paler in general coloration, the rusty yellow tinge being replaced by pale
yellowish, and the markings are browner.

Nestling in doivn (fide Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. ix. p. 163). Naumann says that he found a nest in which
two of the eggs were hatched and the young birds were already dry, two were emerging from the shells,
the fifth egg proving to be addled. These young birds he describes as being covered with long, rather
loose down, which on the head and upper part of the body had long hair-like points sticking out in all
directions. In colour the down is dark rusty yellow, becoming pale rust-red towards the tips. The
upper parts of the body were more red, and the underparts more yellowish ; bill and feet reddish
white ; iris pearl-white.

The range of our common European Bittern is very extensive, as it is found throughout Europe,
except in the high north, in Africa it occurs as far south as the Cape of Good Hope, and in
Asia it is found as far east as Japan. It does not inhabit the Nearctic Region, being there
replaced by Botaurus lentiginosus. Formerly, when extensive fens and morasses existed in
England, it was by no means rare with us, and bred here regularly; but as the fens have been
brought under cultivation it has gradually decreased in numbers, until it is now merely a rare
straggler, and no longer breeds here. Occasionally it is met with, but more frequently in the
autumn and winter than at other seasons. The season of 1874 has been exceptional in that
respect ; for many instances have been recorded of its occurrence in various parts of England
and Ireland. Mr. A. G. More, however, states (Ibis, 1865, p. 433) that the latest instance of its
having bred in England that he could hear of was about ten years previous to that date, when
a nest was taken at the Reservoirs near Tring. It used probably to be most numerous in our
eastern counties, owing to the nature of the country there being most suitable to its habits ; but
even there it seems long ago to have ceased to breed. On the west side of our island it is rare ;
and Mr. Cecil Smith informs me that it is looked on as a very scarce straggler in Somersetshire,
chiefly owing to its favourite haunts having been drained. In Scotland it is said by Mr. Robert
Gray (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 279) not to be a common species anywhere, though, he adds, " I have
seen examples from almost every county. The Bittern has once or twice of late years been killed
at Possil Marsh, and also at Hogganfield, both places being within a few miles of Glasgow. It
has likewise been shot in Arran, Islay, and Mull, but not, so far as I am aware, on any of the
other inner islands, except Skye, on which island one was shot in May 1867. On the Outer
Hebrides it appears to be a rare bird : one was shot in North Uist a few years ago ; but I am not
able to quote any other authentic instance of the occurrence of the Bittern in the long island.
In the east of Scotland the distribution of the Bittern extends from Berwick to Caithness, the
number of specimens obtained being about equal to that met with in the west."

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In Ireland, as in England and Scotland, it used formerly to be common, but now appears to
be a tolerably rare straggler, but has occurred in most parts of the island.

It is stated (Vid. Medd. 1872, p. 133) to have on one occasion straggled as far north as Green-
land ; but I do not find any record of its having been obtained in Iceland, and it is said to be entirely
wanting in Norway; but is found, Nilsson states, in the large morasses of Sweden from Skane up
to Sodermanland or Upland. Kasten states that it was formerly found in the ponds of the large
park called Djurgarden, outside Stockholm ; and according to Lundberg it has of late years been
observed in the reeds outside the town of Koping. Near Gothenburg it is less common. It arrives
in Sweden, Nilsson adds, about the middle of April and leaves in September, though stragglers
have been known to remain as late as November. It is an exceedingly rare straggler to Southern
Finland ; but Dr. Palmen (Finl. Fogl. ii. pp. 300, 301) records several instances of its occurrence

o

there, and adds that a Finnish-killed specimen is in the collection of the Abo Gymnasium.

Mr. Meves heard it near Sermaks, in Northern Russia, on his journey from St. Petersburg to

Archangel ; and Mr. Sabanaeff says that it is rare in the Government of Jaroslaf, but commoner

in that of Moscow. In the reedy portions of the Bashkir lakes he found it common; and it

breeds on the lakes in the Kaslinsk and Keshtemsk Ural. It does not occur in the Ural higher

than in about 57° N. lat. I have no data respecting its occurrence in Poland, where doubtless it

is found in suitable localities. According to Borggreve it is a rare summer visitant to North

Germany. Gloger states that it breeds regularly in Silesia ; and Borggreve himself adds that it

nests in Mittel-Oderbruch. Boeck obtained it in Prussia ; and it is stated to breed in Anhalt,

Mecklenburg, Oldenburg, and even on the Mosel. In Denmark, Mr. A. Benzon writes to me : —

" It was in former times by no means rare in our lakes and morasses ; but as these latter have

during the last half century been drained it has become rare. Specimens, however, are shot now

and again in various parts of the country ; and our Zoological Gardens possess live examples

caught here. I possess specimens in my own collection as follows : — an adult male from Utterslev

Morass, near Copenhagen, shot in September 1862 ; an adult male shot at Stenbymolle on Moen

on the 2nd April, 1864; and a female (in which an egg ready for exclusion was found) from

Guds-Koog, in Schleswig, obtained late in April 1867. I do not know of any instance of its

having bred in Denmark proper of late years; but it is known to breed now and then in the

marshes of Schleswig and Holstein." In Holland it is common in many parts of the country,

and breeds there. Mr. Labouchere remarks that before the reeds have acquired a sufficient

height to serve as a good shelter, it roosts in trees. It is rare in the interior of Belgium, but

commoner towards the Dutch frontier ; and in the north of France a few remain to breed ; but

elsewhere in this latter country it is a migrant, except in the southern provinces, where a few

remain throughout the winter. Professor Barboza du Bocage includes it in his list of Portuguese

birds as common ; and Lord Lilford, Colonel Irby, and Mr. Howard Saunders all met with it in

Spain, where it breeds, and some few appear to remain in the country all the winter, though

the major portion migrate southward in the autumn. Lord Lilford obtained its eggs in the

Marisma near Seville, where, Mr. Saunders says, it is tolerably abundant. Mr. E. von Homeyer

states that it breeds in the Balearic islands, and that he repeatedly heard its cry at the Prat.

In Savoy, Bailly says, it occurs during the two seasons of passage, and occasionally winters

there, but never remains to breed ; and Salvadori writes that it is common in the marshy

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4

portions of Italy, and has been found nesting in Lombardy and the Venetian district ; in Sicily it
is resident throughout the year ; and in Sardinia it is very abundant in winter.

Mr. C. A. "Wright, who has sent specimens from Malta, says (Ibis, 1864, p. 143) that one
" now and then hears of one being shot, and it is certainly a rare bird. One was killed at the
Marsa in March 1859, another in the spring of 1860, and another in December following.
Another was brought to me in October 1863." A specimen sent to me by Mr. Wright was
killed in December 1871 ; and Captain Feilden informs me that one was killed on the 7th, a
second on the 10th, and a third on the 27th March 1874, but that he has not observed it there
during the autumn migration. I have specimens from Albania ; and Lord Lilford writes (Ibis,
1860, p. 347) that it is " common in Epirus from October till May. Its abundance or scarcity
seems to depend on the severity of the weather. I do not think the Bittern breeds in Epirus, at
all events not in those parts of that province with which I have any acquaintance ; but it is fonnd
throughout the year in some of the marshes of Albania and Dalmatia." Both Lindermayer and
Von der Miihle speak of it as occurring in Greece ; and the former says that it remains a few
weeks during the spring passage, and passes north to breed, being rare on the autumn migration ;
but the latter states that it is resident in Greece. It is not uncommon in Southern Germany ;
and Dr. Anton Fritsch writes (J. f. O. 1871, p. 391) that it " breeds on the larger lakes of
Bohemia, near Frauenberg and Kopidleno ; in autumn it becomes numerous in some seasons."
It is said to be numerous in the marshes near the Danube, especially in Hungaiy ; and Messrs.
Elwes and Buckley found it near Constantinople. Professor von Nordmann states that it is
found all round the shores of the Black Sea, where it remains throughout the winter. Regarding
its occurrence between here and North Africa I find but little on record, except that Canon
Tristram met with it in Palestine ; but it doubtless occurs in suitable localities. It is found in
Africa, and, Captain Shelley writes (B. of Egypt, p. 271), is " very plentiful in Lower Egypt and
the Fayoom, but less common in other parts of Egypt and Nubia." Petherick obtained it at
Kordofan, and Lefebvre at Adowa in Abyssinia, in October. In North-west Africa it is, Loche
writes, tolerably common, and some few remain throughout the year ; and Mr. O. Salvin states
(Ibis, 1859, p. 359) a few pairs inhabit the marsh of Zana, where they breed. It is also found as
far south as the Cape colony. Mr. J. H. Gurney has kindly sent to me for examination a pair
of Bitterns from the Transvaal, which I find absolutely identical with our European bird.
Schlegel says (I. c.) that the South- African bird is smaller; but I have a female from Smyrna
which is, if any thing, a trifle less than the female sent by Mr. Gurney. Mr. E. L. Layard, in
his work on the birds of South Africa, says (p. 311) that " the Bittern is occasionally found in a
few favoured localities, even in the neighbourhood of Capetown; and I am told it breeds in
Verloren Vley. At Zoetendals Vley I found it in great abundance ; and early in the morning,
or during the evening twilight, their booming call resounded from every part of the lake.
Mr. Hugo, of Fransch Hoek, brought me a pair of eggs, unfortunately both broken, which he
states are of this bird." Mr. Godman records it from the Azores, where, he says, it inhabits the
eastern and central groups; Mr. E. A. Zuchold speaks of it (J. f. O. 1855, p. 52) as being a
migrant to Madeira; and Dr. C. Bolle (J. f. O. 1855, p. 176) states that it has been killed in
the Canaries.

To the eastward it ranges as far as Japan. Mr. Blanford did not obtain it in Persia ; but

285

Major St. John shot an immature bird in the marshes of Shiraz, and a second, in full plumage,
near Tehran. Dr. Jerdon writes (B. of India, ii. p. 757) that it is " found throughout Central
and Northern India, but is rare or wanting in the south. I have known of its having been killed
in the Deccan, and I have shot it in Central India and Bengal ;" and Mr. A. O. Hume speaks of
it as being very abundant in Upper Sindh. Severtzoff writes that it breeds in Turkestan, in the
north-eastern, south-eastern, and north-western portions of the country, and is rare during winter
in the north-western portion. It breeds to an altitude of about 1000 feet, and occurs during
passage and in winter up to 3000 or 4000 feet above the sea-level. It inhabits Eastern Siberia,
but is recorded by Dr. G. Badde as rare. He killed a female near Kulussutajeffsk on the 2nd
May 1856 ; and one was brought to him at Tschita on the 5th May 1857. Dr. Taczanowski also
writes (J. f. O. 1873, p. 106) that, according to Dr. Dybowski, it is rare in Dauria during migra-
tion, arriving about the middle of May, and breeds on the lakes near Gunka. Mr. Swinhoe says
that it occurs throughout China; but Pere David considers it uncommon at Pekin. Messrs.
Temminck and Schlegel's collectors obtained it in Japan ; and they say that their specimens are
identical with the European bird.

In its habits the Bittern is a somewhat mysterious, peculiar bird, seldom seen during the
day-time, unless suddenly surprised and driven from its hiding-place, where it rests at day, and
only begins to move about as the dusk of the evening sets in. Reed-covered marshy localities
are its favourite haunts, especially when the tract covered by these reeds is large and difficult of
access ; for there it can remain all day undisturbed. It never flies round during daylight of its
own accord, and even when flushed flies off with a somewhat laboured flight, like an Owl in the
sunshine, and drops again into the densest portion of the reed-thickets, where it is hard to put
up again. Even when a dog is sent in to flush it, and the reeds are high and dense, it will climb
up above the surface of the mud or water amongst the reeds, and trust thus to escape observation.
It does not appear to pass the day in sleep ; or at least it sleeps very lightly, as its call may at
times be heard, and the rustling amongst the reeds and flags seems to indicate that it is moving
about ; but only after sunset does it appear to become more active and bestirs itself in search of
food. Its position when seated amongst the reeds is peculiar, and I have more than once come
across one sitting without at first realizing that it was not an old stump or a bundle of dried
flags. Sometimes the feathers are as if drawn in ; and as the bird sits with its head pointed
upwards it is hard to believe that it can be a living bird. But it does not always look so pecu-
liarly thin and stake-like ; for when sitting at ease it frequently puffs the feathers out rather than
draws them in ; and although the neck is curved, as most of the Herons frequently hold it, yet
the heavy feathering on the neck hides the contour and makes it appear as if it were a short,
thick-necked bird ; and should it suddenly stretch its neck, it shoots it out as if from a scabbard,
and one cannot help being astonished at its great length so suddenly displayed.

When winged or wounded it is by no means an easy task to get hold of it ; for it defends
itself with great pluck and determination, throwing itself back and using bill and claws as
weapons of defence, and I have seen a dog get considerably the worst of it in an attack on a
wounded bird.

Its flight is soft and noiseless, like that of a great Owl ; and when on the wing its neck is
drawn in, and looks quite short, and its legs are stretched out behind the tail. It flies lazily,

286

the movements of the wings being slow and measured, unless it be suddenly roused from its
hiding-place, when it flaps hastily up, but soon settles down again, dropping or throwing itself
down amongst the reeds rather suddenly. When walking about, it moves quietly and sedately,
stepping as if every step were carefully considered; and it never appears to run. Its long toes
are admirably adapted for walking amongst the mud, or moving and climbing through the dense
reed-growth ; and it is able to travel considerable distances without descending to the surface of
the water in localities where there is a dense growth of reeds or flags in shallow water. It is
not a very long-legged bird, and cannot wade in any but very shallow water ; for it rarely
immerses any portion of the tibia. Unneighbourly and suspicious in its bearing toward others
of its own species, as well as to other birds which may be found in the vicinity of the place it
inhabits, one rarely finds more than one pair, except on a larger pond or marsh, where there is
plenty of room for several couples to live without coming in the way of each other.

■ The usual call-note of the Bittern is a clear loud croak, not unlike that of the Night-Heron,
and may be heard at night at a great distance. So far as I can make out, it appears to utter this
call only when on the wing. But the cry or call of this bird which is best known is that peculiar
booming sound uttered by the male bird during the pairing-season. This note, though doubtless
it sounds as sweet and soft in the ears of the female as the cooing of the Turtledove does to its
mate, is certainly, so far as I can judge, any thing but a musical or pleasant sound; and in the
dusk of the evening, when one is alone passing along the edge of a marsh, the distant booming
of the Bittern sounds peculiarly uncanny, and one can scarcely wonder at the illiterate peasant
who imagines that the morass is haunted by some howling demon when _he hears the deep note
of the Bittern. I have never heard the booming of this bird near ; and it is most difficult to
approach within any thing like a reasonable distance without the bird stopping his unearthly
roar, which consists of two syllables — one a short one as it draws in the air, and the other a
longer and louder one as it is again expelled. The booming is most like the deep-toned
bellowing of a bull, heard at some distance, but is so loud that one cannot imagine how the
bird is able to produce it. In the early spring, when pairing, the booming of the Bittern is
heard continually during the night; but when the young are hatched it is gradually dis-
continued.

The food of this bird consists of small fish, water-beetles of various sorts, worms, small
crustaceans, frogs, and small mammals such as field-mice ; and it would seem that fish con-
stitute their chief article of food; for one finds these more often in the stomach than any
thing else.

The nesting-place is usually chosen in a locality least frequented by human beings, and
where the bird is unlikely to be molested; and should a pair find that the place selected is
quiet and they have not been disturbed, they are almost sure to return thither the next spring.
A dense forest of reeds in the middle of an almost inaccessible morass is a place frequently
selected ; but in localities where the bird is not rare, the nesting-places are not unfrequently the
reedy portions of secluded ponds. The nest itself is a very careless structure, larger or smaller
according to the place where it is built — usually consisting merely of a collection of the blades
of dried flags and reeds heaped or partly woven together so as to form a convenient bed for the
eggs. It is generally placed amongst the old trodden-down reeds or flags, but occasionally on a

287

small lump forming a diminutive island, and almost always amongst the densest growth of reeds.
The eggs, from three to four (seldom as many as five) in number, are uniform brownish olive,
more olive-green in tinge when fresh, and becoming much browner when blown and kept for a
time. I possess eggs from Holland which in size average 2- 4 % by 1J inch.

The specimen figured is a fine adult male from Holland, purchased in the flesh in Leaden-
hall Market, and is in my own collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, tj . Holland, purchased in Leadenhall Market {H.E.D.). b, 6 ad., c,juv. Albania {Hanbury Barclay),
d. Seville, Spain {Llanos), e, $>. Smyrna, January 15th, 1872 (Dr. Kriiper).

E Mus. J. H. Gurney.

a, c?, b, 2 . Transvaal, South Africa, May 30th, 1872 (Ayres).

E Mus. C. A. Wright,
a. Malta, December 1871 (C. A. W.).

E Mus. Howard Saunders,
a, ? . Near Seville, April 10th, 1869.

288

404

J j.Keiilemaiis litli.

Haniiar^ imp

AMERICAN BITTERN.
BOTAURUS LENTICI NOSUS.

289

BOTAURUS LENTIGINOSIS

(AMERICAN BITTERN.)

The Bittern from Hudson s Bay, Edw. Nat. Hist. B. iii. p. 136, pi. 136 (1750).

Ardea botaurus freti hudsonis, Briss. Orn. v. p. 450 (1760).

Ardea stellaris, var., Forst. Phil. Trans, lxii. p. 410 (1772).

Ardea stellaris, var. j3, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 636 (1788).

Ardea lentiginosa, Mont. Orn. Diet. Suppl. & pi. (1813).

Ardea minor, Wils. Am. Orn. viii. p. 35, pi. 65. fig. 3 (1814).

Ardea mokoho, Vieill. Nouv. Diet. xiv. p. 440 (1817).

Botaurus lentiginosus (Mont.), Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xi. p. 596 (1819).

Ardea hitdsonias, Merr. in Ersch & Grub. Encycl. v. p. 175 (1820).

Botaurus minor (Wils.), Boie, Isis, 1826, p. 979.

Butor americana, Swains. Classif. of B. ii. p. 354 (1837).

Butor lentiginosus (Mont.), Jard. Brit. B. iii. p. 147(1842).

Botaurus adspersus, Licht. Nomencl. Av. p. 89 (1854).

Ardea freti-hudsonis, Schlegel, Mus. Pays-Bas, Ardea, p. 49 (1863).

Botaurus mugitans, Coues, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1875, p. 353.

Figurce notabiles.

Edwards, I.e.; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 281 ; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 27; Audub. B. of Am.
pi. 365 ; Wilson, Am. Orn. pi. 65. fig. 3.

Ad. pileo rufescenti-fusco, nigro-fusco notato : supra rufescenti-fuscus nigro-fusco et ochraceo-cervino varie-
gatus et verrniculatus : uropygio et supracaudalibus magis rufescentibus : cauda fusca rufescenti
marmorata : remigibus primariis nigro-fuscis, secundariis castaneo terminates nigrieanti marmoratis :
mento et gula cervino-albis, centraliter tinea fusca notatis : stria magna nigra utrinque in colli
lateribus : gutture et corpore subtus cervinis, plumis centraliter stria magna fusca variegata notatis :
abdomine imo et subcaudalibus rufescenti-cervinis : rostro nigro-fusco, subtus et ad basin viridi-flavo :
loris nudis viridi-flavis : iride aurantiaca : pedibus griseo virescentibus.

Adult Male (New Brunswick, 18th April). Crown and nape reddish brown, marked with blackish brown,
becoming greyer on the hind neck ; upper parts generally dark reddish brown, variegated and vermi-
culated with buffy yellow and blackish brown ; rump and upper tail-coverts more reddish in tinge ; tail
warm brown, slightly marbled with reddish ; primaries uniform blackish brown, some slightly tinged
with chestnut at the tip, secondaries broadly tipped with chestnut-red, marbled with blackish ; wing-
coverts brownish yellow, marbled and vermiculated with blackish ; throat buffy white, with a central
brown line ; a broad black line runs from the gape down the sides of the neck : underparts buff, the
elongated pectoral feathers with a broad variegated brown centre, forming a broad stripe, these stripes
being less distinct on the rest of the underparts ; flanks variegated with dark brown ; under tail-coverts
and thighs warm creamy buff; bill above and at the tip brownish black, but greenish yellow at the

290

base; bare space round tbe eye greenish yellow; iris reddish yellow; legs greyish green. Total length
about 27 inches, culmen 3-22, gape 3-95, wing 1T5, tail 4-5, tarsus 3'85.

Adult Female. Differs from the male only in being rather smaller in size, and a little duller in the markings
of the plumage.

It is somewhat remarkable that this bird, an inhabitant of North America, should have been met
with so often in Great Britain ; for it is by no means a bird that one would expect to cross the
Atlantic. Still there can be no doubt that it has been obtained here on several occasions ; and it
is curious that it was first described by Montagu from a specimen shot in England, at Piddletown,
in Dorsetshire, in 1804. Since then the following occurrences have been recorded, viz.: — One
at Mothecombe, near Plymouth, 22nd December 1829 (Moore, Mag. Nat. Hist. x. p. 320); one
said in a letter from Mr. J. R. Wallace, of Douglas, Isle of Man, to Yarrell (Brit. B. 3rd ed. ii.
p. 578), to have been killed there "very recently;" one shot in Dumfriesshire, near Sir William
Jardine's residence, late in October 1844, and preserved in his collection. Yarrell (op. cit. p. 578)
states that one was killed at Fleetwood, in Lancashire ; and he also refers to one recorded as
having been killed near Yarmouth; but Mr. Stevenson (B. of Norf. ii. p. 174) points out that
this occurrence cannot be depended on. Thompson states (B. of Irel. ii. p. 168) that one, now
in the Belfast Museum, was obtained near Armagh on the 12th November 1845. Mr. Gurney
(Zool. 1866, p. 145) says that he examined one in the flesh procured in Anglesea in December
1851 ; and he also identifies one killed at Canterbury. According to Mr. Robert Gray (B. of
W. of Scotl. p. 280), one was shot by Colonel William Fraser in November 1854, near the Bridge
of Don, on the estate of Balgownie, in Aberdeenshire ; one at Latherow-Wheel, Caithness, in the
autumn of 1862 ; and one (recorded in the Field of 4th March 1871) was shot near the Compen-
sation Pond, in the Pentland Hills, Mid Lothian, by John Kinkell, gamekeeper to Charles
Cowan, Esq., of Logan House, about ten years previously. Mr. Dutton (Zool. 1868, p. 1098)
records one, in the collection of Sir John Crewe, as having been killed in the Pevensey Marshes,
Sussex, on the 26th November 1867; Lord Clermont (Zool. 1869, p. 1517) cites the occurrence
of one near Dundalk, co. Louth, on the 18th November 1868 ; one, in the collection of Mr. Cecil
Smith, was obtained in Guernsey on the 27th October 1870; and, according to Mr. Blake-Knox
(Zool. 1870, p. 2408), one was procured at Cahir, co. Galway, on the 31st October 1870. So far
as I can ascertain, it does not appear to have been met with on the continent of Europe ; for,
though it is said to have been obtained near Leipzig, I do not find any evidence confirmatory of
this statement.

In America the present species is very generally distributed from about 58° N. lat. down to
Guatemala. Dr. Coues states : — " It is migratory, and its movements are regular. Excepting
the Great Blue Heron, no bird of its tribe in this country is so extensively dispersed. It reaches
the Northern States in March or early in April, and may pass still further north. I ascertained
its occurrence at Rigolet, in Labrador ; and it is stated to reach 58° or 60° in the interior. It
reaches across our continent. To the south its movements extend to Guatemala, although it
winters in the Southern States as well, and also, I am inclined to think, even in the Middle
States, as I have procured it in January at Washington. It visits some of the West-Indian
Islands. In September I found it migratory through Dakota in comparative plenty. It may

291

breed in almost any portion of its range, but nests preferably towards the north." To this I may
add that I found it common and resident in Texas. It occurs also in Mexico ; and Mr. Salvin
records it (Ibis, 1860, p. 194) from Vera Paz and (Ibis, 1866, p. 196) from Duefias and Coban,
in Guatemala. According to Mr. E. von Martens (J. f. O. 1859, p. 219) it is to be met with in
Bermuda " in every swamp from October to December, and occasionally as late as March ;"
Albrecht records it from Jamaica; and Dr. Gundlach says (J. f. O. 1856, p. 346) that it is "not
uncommon in Cuba from October to April, but never remains there to breed."

In habits the present species much resembles our common European Bittern. Like that
bird it is a shy, solitary species, whose habits are not easy to observe. I not unfrequently met
with it in New Brunswick, where I used to find it on the swampy margins of the small lakes far
in the forests ; but I never saw more than one or two on the same lake. I have usually flushed
them when tramping through the reeds, when they rise heavily and flap off as quickly as they can.
Once only, as 1 was creeping cautiously along in quest of a Duck I had caught sight of on the
water, do I recollect seeing one standing motionless as if asleep, apparently not having perceived
me ; but the next moment he started off uttering a loud croak of surprise. The best account
of its habits I have read is that by Dr. Elliott Coues (B. of N.W. p. 527), which I transcribe as
follows: — "This Bittern, as has been said, is essentially 'wild, shy, and solitary.' We oftener
start one from his lonely vigils in the bog, than find several or even a pair together, excepting
in the breeding-season. No doubt he enjoys life after his own fashion; but his notions of
happiness are peculiar. He prefers solitude, and leads the eccentric life of a recluse, ' forgetting
the world, and by the world forgot.' To see him at his ordinary occupation, one might fancy
him shouldering some heavy responsibility, oppressed with a secret, or labouring in the solution
of a problem of vital consequence. He stands motionless, with his head drawn in upon his
shoulders, and half-closed eyes, in profound meditation, or steps about in a devious way, with an
absent-minded air; for greater seclusion, he will even hide in a thick brush-clump for hours
together. Startled in his retreat whilst his thinking-cap is on, he seems dazed, like one suddenly
aroused from a deep sleep ; but as soon as he collects his wits, remembering unpleasantly that
the outside world exists, he shows common sense enough to beat a hasty retreat from a scene of
altogether too much action for him. Some such traits have doubtless led to the belief that he
is chiefly a nocturnal bird ; but such is not the case. He may migrate by night ; but so does the
Killdeer, and the Bobolink, and many other birds not in the least nocturnal. Nor is the Bittern
either lazy or stupid, as some may suppose. He is simply what we call a shady character — one
of those non-committal creatures whom we may invest, if we please, with various attributes, and
perhaps consider very deep, without sufficient reason — the fact being that we make the mystery
about him. There is nothing remarkable in the fact that he prefers his own company and
dislikes to be bored. He lives in the bog, where he finds plenty to eat that he likes best, and is
satisfied to be simply let alone.

" When the Bittern is disturbed at his meditation, he gives a vigorous spring, croaks at the
moment in a manner highly expressive of his disgust, and flies off as fast as he can, though in
rather a loose, lumbering way. For some distance he flaps heavily with dangling legs and out-
stretched neck; but when settled on his course he proceeds more smoothly, with regularly
measured wing-beats, the head drawn in closely, and the legs stretched straight out behind

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together, like a rudder. He is very easily shot on the wing — easily hit, and dropping at a touch
even of fine shot. When winged, he croaks painfully as he drops, and no sooner does he touch
the ground than he gathers himself in defensive attitude to resent aggression as best he can. He
fights well, and with more spirit and determination than he might be expected to show — like
many other quiet inoffensive creatures when quite sure they have a grievance and are pushed to
desperation. He has a very ugly way of pointing his resistance with quick thrusts of his spear-
like bill, capable of inflicting no slight wound on an incautious hand. But it avails little ; a
kick from a cowhide boot, or a thump with the butt of a gun, generally decides the unequal
contest.

" The food of this bird consists of various kinds of small aquatic animals. In its stomach
may be found different molluscs, crawfish, frogs, lizards, small snakes and fishes, as well as
insects. Such prey is captured, with great address, by spearing as the bird walks or wades
stealthily along. The thrust of the bill is marvellously quick and skilful ; more action is dis-
played on such occasions than probably under any other circumstance. As an article of food
itself, the Bittern is not a success, notwithstanding eminent authority to the contrary. I have
several times seen it brought to table under favourable culinary circumstances; but in each
instance it furnished occasion for a joke at some one's expense, as little relished, apparently, as
the meat itself."

As regards what Dr. Coues says as to its edible qualities I can scarcely agree with him ; for
I have often found a grilled Bittern a very welcome addition to our meal in the backwoods, and,
whether it was that I had got tired of pork and molasses, or that hunger proved such an effective
sauce, or that our camp cook understood how to make them palatable, I can say that I have
enjoyed a meal off Bittern and cakes baked before a wood fire almost as much as I have a lunch
in a good Paris restaurant.

The call- of the American Bittern differs a good deal from that of Botaurus stellaris.
Dr. Coues says : — " The curious noise is spoken of in Audubon as a ' hoarse croaking, as if the
throat were filled with water;' Nuttall makes a successful attempt to suggest the sound by the
syllables ' pump-aw-gah ;' but I prefer, on the whole, Mr. Samuels' rendering. ' In the mating-
season,' he says, ' and during the first part of the period of incubation, the male has a peculiar
love-note, that almost exactly resembles the stroke of a mallet on a stake — something like the
syllables chunk-a-lunk-chunk, quank chunk-a-lunk-chunk. I have often, when in the forests of
Northern Maine, been deceived by this note into believing that some woodsman or settler was in
my neighbourhood, and discovered my mistake only after toiling through swamp and morass for
perhaps half a mile.' Besides this peculiar call-note, the bird has another, its ordinary cry,
when its breast is not in the least swelling with the tender passion. This is a single, abrupt,
explosive syllable, something like quark or hauk, delivered with a rough, guttural intonation.
It is always uttered when the bird is surprised while feeding, or when its haunts are invaded.
As it lives so much among reeds and rushes, very often the first intimation one has of its presence
is the energetic utterance of this note, to be followed in an instant by the heavy form of the
bird itself as it tops the tall reeds. Ordinarily, however, the Bittern is decidedly a silent bird,
as it were mistrusting its vocal ability ; besides, noisiness is not altogether compatible with its
sedate ways and contemplative turn of mind.

29;-)

" We might expect to find in the wind-pipe some peculiarity to account for such vocal
efforts. In such instances as those of the Trumpeter Swan and Whooping Crane the remarkable
notes emitted depend evidently upon the peculiarly convoluted structure of the trachea. But
ordinarily, little connexion can be traced between quality of voice and tracheal structure. The
curious cartilaginous or osseous bulbs at the lower larynx of most Ducks seem to have no
influence on the voice. Who would suspect the marvellous musical ability of a Mocking Bird
from comparison of its vocal organ with that of a Crow, for instance ? a bird which, anatomically
considered, is truly oscine, for all that its croak is so harsh. The conformation of the Bittern's
windpipe is not remarkable, according to descriptions ; there is no dilatation into a membranous
or gristly tympanum, nor any convolution ; nor is the muscular arrangement remarkable. The
calibre of the tube is perhaps greater, proportionally, than is usual in Herons, with laterally
compressed walls, narrow rings, and wide spaces ; but, for all that we can discover by examination
of the organs, the voice of the Bittern is likely to remain its own secret."

The nest of the Bittern is placed on the ground, on a tuft of grass, or under a bush in a
swampy locality. Mr. Samuels says that it breeds in communities ; but Mr. Endicott doubts
this, and says, (according to his experience) " one pair of Bitterns to a bog seems to be the
rule. In a place where I have found them there is retired feeding-ground for a thousand — dense
cedar swamps extensive enough for as many nests if they only chose to congregate like their
sociable cousins the Herons ; and yet two by two they live, their next neighbours nobody knows
how far away — not in the same swamp at any rate ; and on the ground, the bare ground, they
lay their four or five eggs, among low laurel, tufts of grass, or, as in the case of the first nest I
ever found, at the foot of a swamp-huckleberry." Judging from my own experience, I certainly
can indorse this statement of Mr. Endicott; and the lumbermen amongst whom I spent two
seasons in New Brunswick, several of whom I found to be tolerably accurate observers, all
assured me that this Bittern does not breed in communities, but singly.

Eggs of the American Bittern in my collection, from New Brunswick and Maine, closely
assimilate with those of Botaurus stellaris in shape and coloration, but are smaller in size,
averaging only about 2-/ - by 1\§ inch.

Dr. Coues (I. c.) is inclined to adopt a name hitherto unknown for the present species, viz.
that given by Bartram in 1791 ; but I cannot at all agree in the propriety of discarding an old
and well-known name in favour of one which is, to say the least of it, doubtful. Bartram gives
merely a list of the birds met with in his travels, and at p. 293 (no. 138) he includes Artlea
mugitans, calling it also " Bitern or Indian Hen," but giving no description whatever. Under
these circumstances I prefer to use Montagu's name lentiginoses ; for this author gives both a
good description and a plate.

The specimen figured is the one above described, and was shot by myself at Musquash,
New Brunswick.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mils. H. E. Dresser.

a, 6 ad. Mace's Bay, New Brunswick, April 16th, 1862 (H. E. D.). b, 6 ■ Bullen Marsh, Musquash, N. B.,
April 18th, 1862 (H. E. D.). c. Calais, Maine, U. S., 1863 (G. A. Boardman).

In

294

295

Family CICONIID^I.

Genus CICONIA.

Ciconia, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 361 (1760).

Ardea apud Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 235 (1766).

Melanopelargus apud Reichenbach, Syst. Av. v. p. 165 (1850).

The Storks inhabit the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental, Australian, and Neotropical Regions, two
species being resident in the Western Palsearctic Region. Ciconia abdimii,~L\cht.,is said to have
been obtained in Spain ; for Mr. Saunders states that there is a good description of one, killed
near Granada on the 18th June 1858, in Don Victor Seoane's 'Catalogo de las Aves observadas
in Andalucia.' But the specimen does not seem to be forthcoming, if in existence ; I therefore
think it premature to admit that species into the European list.

The Storks frequent, as a rule, marshy places, but are also found in meadows and cultivated
ground near water ; and one of our European species evinces a great partiality for inhabited
districts, and appears to be fond of placing its nest on houses, even in towns. Although tame
and confiding to a degree where they are not molested, they are shy enough when in the marshes
away from habitations ; and the Black Stork, which frequents wilder and uninhabited places, is
sufficiently wary. They walk with ease, often wading far into the water in search of food ; and
their flight, though rather heavy, is strong and tolerably swift. They feed on reptiles, fish, insects,
and small mammals, and are said to devour poisonous snakes. They place their nests, which are
large, bulky structures of sticks lined with grass, straw, &c, on a building, or else on a tree or in
a cave ; and their eggs, from three to five in number, are pure white.

Ciconia alba, the type of the genus, has the bill much longer than the head, stout, straight,
conical, tapering to a point ; gape-line straight, commencing below the eyes ; nostrils elongated,
oval ; a small space round the eye bare ; wings long, full, the first quill rather short, the third
longest ; inner secondaries nearly as long as the primaries ; tail short, slightly rounded ; legs
long, slender, tibia bare on the lower half, reticulated, tarsus reticulated all round ; toes
moderate, hind toe rather short, anterior toes webbed and reticulate at the base, elsewhere
scutellate ; claws short, obtuse ; plumage compact, moderately full.

J 33

296

405

WHITE STORK.

CIC0N1A ALBA

297

CICONIA ALBA.

(WHITE STORK.)

Ardea ciconia, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 235 (1766).

he Cigogne, Buff. Ois. viii. p. 117 (1783).

Ciconia alba, Bechst. Naturg. Deutschl. iii. p. 41 (1793).

Ciconia albescens, Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 574 (1831).

Ciconia nivea, Brehm, torn. cit. p. 574 (1831).

Ciconia Candida, Brehm, torn. cit. p. 575 (1831).

Ciconia major, Brehm, Naumannia, 1855, p. 289.

Cigogne, French ; Ciguena, Spanish ; Cegonha, Portuguese ; Cicogna, Italian ; Storch, German ;
Stork, Danish and Swedish ; Bocian, Polish ; Aist, Kussian ; Legleh, Tartar ; Belaredj,
Bou-laMaJc, BouchekchacJc, Arabic.

Figures notabiles.

Buff. PI. Enl. pi. 866; Werner, Atlas, Coureurs, pi. 20; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. pi. 228.
figs. 1 & 2; Zool. Gart. 1864, pi. 399 (nestling); Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 283; Sundevall,
Svensk. Fogl. pi. 47. fig. 1 ; Frisch, Vog. Eur. pi. 41. fig. 3.

Ad. albus : remigibus, tectricibus alarum majoribus scapularibusque nigerrimis : regione ophthalmicfl mentoque
nudis, ilia nigra, hoc rubro, ad basin rostri nigro : rostro pedibusque rubris : iride brunnea.

Juv. adulto similis, sed rostro nigricante, pedibus saturate rubris.

Adult Male. Pure white, excepting the quills, scapulars, and larger wing-coverts, which are glossy black ;
secondaries washed with grey on the outer web ; bare skin round the eye black ; chin naked, in colour
reddish, but black at the immediate base of the bill ; beak and legs coral-red ; iris brown. Total length
40 inches, culmen 7 - 0, wing 22'5, tail 9 - 0, tarsus 89.

Female. Differs from the male merely in being somewhat smaller in size.

Young. Similar to the adult bird, but has the beak blackish and the legs dull reddish.

The White Stork inhabits Central and Southern Europe and Africa, and is met with in Persia,
India, and Japan. It but rarely visits our islands, at irregular periods, those occurring here
being probably stragglers driven to us through stress of weather. Yarrell writes that "Dr. Edward
Moore, on the authority of Mr. Gosling, says that three birds have been obtained in Devonshire.
One was killed in Hampshire in 1808, by the gamekeeper of John Guitton, Esq., of Little Park,
near Wickham. One has been killed near Salisbury. One bird, out of a flock of four, was shot
in Oxfordshire. Two have been killed in Kent ; one of them in Eomney Marsh, the second near

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Sandwich. One was killed near Mildenhall, in Suffolk, in 1830. I learn from Frederick Holme,
Esq., that a flock of four or five White Storks haunted the pools of Kedby Common, in the
East Eiding of Yorkshire, for some time in the spring of 1830, and one of them was shot."
Yarrell further enumerates two other instances of its occurrence, one of which is given by
Mr. Stevenson.

Mr. Stevenson has, in his ' Birds of Norfolk,' published a most careful account of the
occurrence of this species in Norfolk, which I copy as follows : — " ' Ciconia raro hue advolat,'
wrote Sir Thomas Browne in a letter to Dr. Merrett, in 1668, quoting, indeed, the latter 's own
words, but adding, ' I have seen two in a watery marsh, eight miles off [Norwich] ; another shot,
whose case is yet to be seen.' Again in his ' Account of birds found in Norfolk,' he speaks of
having seen the ' Ciconia, or Stork, in the fens ; and some have been shot in the marshes between
this [Norwich] and Yarmouth;' whilst Willughby, in his ' Ornithology,' expresses his obligation
to his ' honoured friend,' Sir Thomas, for ' a picture of one of these birds, taken on the coast of
Norfolk, drawn by the life, with a short description of it,' which specimen, in confinement,
'readily ate frogs and land-snails, but refused toads.' Turner years before (1544) had stated
' Ciconia, ut Germanis auis est notissima, ita Britannis meis plerisque omnibus tarn ignota est,
quam quae omnium ignotissima. Nee mirum, quum nusquam in insula nostra nisi captiua
Ciconia uideatur ;' in Johnston, whose work bears a figure of this bird on its frontispiece, with
the motto ' Pietas contenta lucrata,' bore witness to the same, saying Storks 'in Britannia
ignotas esse.' Bay, too, in his 'Synopsis' (1713), asserts that the species 'In littoribus nostris
interdum sed rarius cernitur; apud nos non nidificat' (p. 97). Still, notwithstanding these old
records, so fortunately preserved to us, I see no reason to suppose that, as an accidental visitant,
the Stork was less frequently met with on our coast at that time than it is now, although fewer
examples fell victims to their too confiding nature, and many, most probably, passed wholly
unnoticed. It must, however, be always borne in mind that the Stork was but a stranger in the
land, and not an inhabitant as were the Crane and Spoonbill.

" Going back to the commencement of the present century, we have ample evidence of its
appearance in this country, year after year, on its migratory course ; and more recent observations
entirely confirm the statement of Messrs. Gurney and Fisher, in 1846, that ' one or two of these
birds are generally seen in Norfolk every year, generally during the spring months, and in the
vicinity of the eastern coast.' Now and then, however, a specimen is met with far inland, either
storm-driven, or, more often, seeking in vain to escape persecution. In Sir William Hooker's MS.
I find the following important notes, which are, in many points, confirmed by the Messrs. Paget : —
'A Stork seen about Yarmouth by Mr. Penrice and Mr. Bonfellow in the autumn of 1810; a
pair seen at Burgh Castle during the months of May and June 1817, and at length shot in the
beginning of July ; another before that time shot at Caister ; and one killed in Norfolk, May 6th,
1818, now in the possession of Mr. T. Hunt, of Norwich.' Of more recent date, there is a record
in Mr. Lombe's notes, of one killed near Holt, in 1836 ; Mr. Lubbock mentions one killed at
Wretham, in 1838; and an adult bird in the Norwich Museum (No. 211a) was shot near Yar-
mouth in 1842. Of this latter specimen I find the following interesting description in the
' Zoologist ' for 1843 (p. 182), from the pen of Mr. W. B. Fisher (then residing at Yarmouth) : —
'As I was walking on the beach, on the morning of the 10th of May last, I observed a bird of

299

this species coming over from seawards. When it first came over the shore, it was flying so low
that I could plainly distinguish its long legs stretched out behind, like those of the Heron, the
black bar across the wings, formed by the quill-feathers and wing-coverts, contrasting strongly
with the pure white of the rest of the plumage. I watched it for some minutes as, after taking
two or three turns over the houses, it slowly soared to an immense height, and then went steadily
off in a south-westerly direction. It was shot next day, six miles from Yarmouth ' — at Halvergate,
as Mr. Fisher subsequently informed Mr. Yarrell. ' In Mr. Dowell's notes I find two records of
Storks observed at Salthouse, one purchased by Mr. J. H. Gurney several years ago, but not now
in his collection (though he still possessed a more recent specimen killed on Breydon), and
another seen in the Cley marshes, in the summer of 1849, within shot of the Salthouse bank.

"On the 7th of June, 1848, an adult female, now in the possession of the Rev. H. T. Frere,
of Burston, was shot on Breydon, as noticed by Messrs. Gurney and Fisher in the ' Zoologist '
(p. 2291). In 1852, Mr. L. H. Irby recorded in the same journal (p. 3476) the occurrence of an
adult male on Breydon, about the 15th of March (now in Major Irby's possession) ; and in
February of the same year an immature specimen, also killed near Yarmouth, was sent up to
Norwich for preservation. This bird had evidently received a previous wound, from the effects
of which it had been gradually wasting, and was thus happily destroyed. A second example in
the Norwich Museum (No. 211), in adult plumage, was procured at Brooke, near Norwich, in
August 1858.

" On the 3rd of October, 1855, whilst travelling by an early train on the Great Eastern
Railway, I saw one of these birds in a low meadow, at Lakenham, near Norwich, not far from
the line, and, as long as I could observe it, perfectly undisturbed by the passing carriages. It
was standing apparently in a little watercourse, as I could see only part of its legs, with its head
and neck thrown back, and its red beak resting on its breast in the most perfect repose ; whilst
the marked contrast of the black wing-feathers to the pure white of the rest of the plumage was
strikingly visible in the morning sun.

" On the 14th of September, 1856, a very fine Stork was seen on the farm of Mr. Sewell, of
North Pickenham, near Swaffham, from whence it flew into some low grounds belonging to
Mr. R. Hall Say. Mr. Say's keeper went in pursuit, and succeeded in shooting it in a long
plantation belonging to that gentleman.

" In 1858 a fine specimen, now in the collection of the Rev. C. J. Lucas, and formerly in
that of Mr. A. F. Sealy, was shot at Yarmouth, and was purchased by the latter gentleman in
the flesh.

" On the 29th of November, 1860, an adult female was killed at Hickling, which, like the
one in 1852, had suffered greatly from a previous wound, as shown by its soiled plumage and
poor condition.

"About the 17th of May, 1861, an adult female was shot on the late Mr. Cator's estate at
Woodbastwick, and is still, I believe, preserved at the hall. This bird contained an egg quite
ready for exclusion, which was only slightly cracked on one side by the fall of the bird.

" And last on the list to the present time is an adult bird, in Mr. Overend's collection at
Yarmouth, which, as stated in the ' Field' (vol. xxv. p. 384), was killed on the 24th of May, 1865,
in some marshes at Oby, about seven miles from the coast."

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300

Mr. Cordeaux, in his useful little work the ' Birds of the Humber District,' states that
" a White Stork (now, as Mr. Richardson, of Beverley, informs me, in the possession of Mr. P.
Lawtou, innkeeper, Easington) was shot near Withernsea, on the coast of Holderness, by a man
named Crawforth, early in September 1869 ;" but this species is very rare in the north of England
or Scotland. Macgillivray states that he only knew of one Scotch-killed Stork, a specimen
having been shot in Mainland, Shetland, and subsequently deposited in the University Museum
at Edinburgh ; but he further writes that " the Rev. Mr. Smith, Monguhitter, informs me that
'during the unusually severe winter of 1837-38, a specimen of this rare bird was shot in a moss
in the upper part of the parish of Lomnay. It was nailed to a barn-door, where it speedily went
to decay. The people who obtained it compared its red legs to Turkey leather.' " Mr. Robert
Gray, who says that he knows of no instance of its occurrence in Western Scotland, writes that
" in the statistical account of the parish of Craig, in Forfarshire, prepared by the late Mr. Thomas
Mollison, Montrose, and published in 1835, it is stated that a Stork had been seen a short time
previously near that town, and was afterwards shot at Ethie House. In addition to this instance,
I have to record the occurrence of a very fine specimen which was shot near St. Abb's Head,
Berwickshire, in 1848, by a fisherman, who gave it to Mr. William Paterson, of North Berwick.
This bird is still carefully preserved in that gentleman's collection. I saw it shortly after its
capture, and have since seen it when visiting Mr. Paterson in company with Dr. Turnbull, who
takes notice of the specimen in his little work on the birds of East Lothian."

It has only once been recorded from Ireland. In the Ann. Nat. Hist. July 1846 (p. 70,
vol. xviii.), is a letter from "J. R. Harvey, M.D.," who states as follows: — "A fine specimen of
the Stork (Ciconia alba, Ray) was shot a few weeks since near Fermoy, in the county of Cork.
It appears that three individuals were seen; but this only was procured. It is now in the
possession of the Rev. Mr. Bradshaw, of this city (Cork). I am not aware of any authentic
record of the species having been met with in Ireland before."

It does not appear to have occurred in Iceland or on the Faeroes, and in Norway it is only
met with as a straggler ; and, according to Mr. Collett, stray flocks of four or five individuals visit
that country almost every year, but never remain to breed; indeed they are generally killed,
because they are rare. They are generally met with in Southern Norway as far north as Bergen,
and but rarely occur in the interior. Nilsson states that " it is tolerably numerous in Southern
Sweden, and is found more especially in some of the wooded districts, as, for instance, in a wood
near Skabersjo, and a still larger colony inhabit a wood near Orup, in Benestads parish. In the
west it occurs near Falkenberg, in Halland : to the eastward it rarely breeds higher than Skane ;
but now and then a straggler is met with higher to the north, and it has been seen even as far as
Upland. It arrives in Skane early in April, and leaves again late in August.

In Finland it is rare, but has occurred there on several occasions. Von Nordmann records
one occurrence near Borga ; and Nilsson states that it has been met with as far north as at Tornea ;
but Professor Malmgren writes to me that this is not the case, as, owing to a misprint, Tornea
was put instead of Upsala. In Northern Russia it is rare ; but, according to Sabanaeff, " it occurs
in the Governments of Moscow and Jaroslaf, though Bogdanoff does not record it from the Volga.
Middendorff, however, states that it is found on the Kama to 59^° N. lat." Mr. Taczanowski
writes that "it is common throughout the whole of Poland, but is more numerous on the right

301

shore of the Vistula. There are localities in this country where one or two Stork's nests are
seen on every building, besides several on the neighbouring trees. Fifteen years ago the Storks
must have met with a catastrophe during their passage, as they returned very much diminished
in numbers, since when they have been considerably less numerous than previously. The periods
of their migrations are very regular. The first arrive generally between the 19th and 25th of
March ; and in a few days all the pairs are at their nests. The 26th of August is about the time
when they usually leave the country, after having congregated in enormous bands ; but they do
not long remain thus, as the isolated adult individuals come and collect the young together and
conduct them away. The Stork is not found in the eastern parts of European Russia ; but the
exact limits of its range are not yet precisely ascertained. According to Professor Kessler it is
common in the districts of Kieff, and it is found in all parts of that Government, though con-
siderably more numerous in the southern part, and rarer as one advances towards the north.
They are most numerous in the Government of Podolsk." In the Baltic Provinces and through-
out Northern Germany the Stork is everywhere to be met with during the summer season, there,
as elsewhere, breeding in the villages, and building its huge nest on the houses or the roofs of
the farm-buildings. In Denmark, Mr. Benzon informs me, the Stork is " met with everywhere,
but is not so common now, since so many of the morasses are drained, as it used to be. It
arrives early in March or from then to April, or, when the weather is unfavourable, not until
the latter end of April ; thus the dates of its arrival may vary as much as thirty days. I have
never known it to arrive before the 8th of March, on which date, in 1871, it appeared on Hadsten
Enge, near Aarhus, on Jutland ; and the latest date of its arrival that I have on record is the
25th of April. The average date of its arrival is about the 3rd of April, during an average tem-
perature of 2-7° Cent. In the Duchies it is seen somewhat earlier; and, according to Boje, is
said to arrive from the 19th of February to the 9th of April; and in Belgium it arrives from the
17th of February to the 28th of March, the average temperature being 2 - 4° Cent. It leaves
Denmark late in August ; and only in case of a late brood do a pair or two remain as late as the
middle of September. Males and females appear to migrate separately, as the former arrive
about a week before the latter, in order to take possession of their old nest or seek for a suitable
spot for the purpose of nidification ; and in so doing the males often fight with such fierceness
as to result in the death of one or the other of the combatants." In Holland and Belgium it is
also tolerably numerous, arriving in February and March and leaving again in August; but,
according to Degland and Gerbe, it is now merely a bird of passage in France — which is not to
be wondered at, seeing that upwards of forty are recorded as having been killed in September
1833, between Gorze and Rezonville, and similar massacres would appear to have taken place in
Champagne. It formerly nested at Valenciennes, Douai, Cambrai, Bergues, and other places in
the north of France ; but having been persecuted, they have not returned for many years. In
Alsace and Lorraine, however, it would appear to better treated, and some remain to breed.
De Selys states that it passes through Belgium in April and at the end of August, but does not
nest there. In Savoy it is also a bird of passage in April and in early autumn, when according
to Bailly, the young are so much fatigued that they are slaughtered by wholesale — some gallant
sportsmen actually bagging six or eight at a shot, and winding up by knocking them down with
sticks. Under these circumstances there may be a lurking sarcasm in the statement that " their

2 Y 2

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6

stay in Savoy is but very short." Professor Barboza du Bocage includes it in his list of the birds
of Portugal ; and the various writers on the ornithology of Spain speak of it as common in that
country. Lord Lilford saw numbers near Segovia. Major Irby records it as abundant near
Seville, arriving in February and leaving in October ; and Mr. Howard Saunders, in his paper on
the birds of Southern Spain, gives this bird as " abundant throughout the country, breeding in
the towers and belfries of the churches of the towns and cities, and on the ' almihares ' or stacks
of the farmhouses. The largest number of eggs that I have known is five." When at the
Escorial, in May 1866, I saw several pairs which had their nests on the roofs of that cluster of
buildings, and was told that they breed there regularly.

Passing eastward, again, we find it, according to Doderlein, of occasional occurrence in Central
Italy and Sicily ; and Salvadori writes that it is but rarely known to visit Sardinia. Mr. C. A.
Wright records it as "rare in Malta, and not seen annually;" and Dr. Giglioli states that he
never observed it near Pisa. Lord Lilford met with it in Epirus, where it arrives in March and
was found breeding on the house-tops ; and in Greece, where it is tolerably common, it arrives
before the equinoctial gales in large numbers, and spreads over the entire country. Lindermayer
says that it affects the old Turkish ruins and places where the Turks reside ; and in those where
civilization had progressed to any extent, as, for instance, in Nauplia, Patras, Syra, and Athens,
the Stork has gradually disappeared. He writes that the males fight to the last for the females,
and records an instance, which he himself witnessed, of two males fighting until both were quite
disabled.

It is not uncommon in Southern Germany ; and Mr. W. H. Hudleston states that it abounds
in the Dobrudscha, where it may be seen wading deliberately on the edge of every pool. In
Turkey, Messrs. Elwes and Buckley write, it is " very common all over the country, arriving in the
beginning of April. There is hardly a village or farm in Turkey without its pair of Storks ; and
in some places nearly every house has a nest on the roof. As the Stork is protected, and regarded
as a bird of good omen by Turks, Greeks, and Bulgarians alike, it is very tame and familiar,
and always takes up its quarters close to a house. The eggs are laid at the end of April, and
are sat upon by male and female in turn." Mr. G. Cavendish Taylor met with it commonly in
the outskirts of Constantinople ; and I often observed it in the low lands at the mouth of the
Danube. Throughout Southern Russia they are, Professor Nordmann states, numerous wherever
man is present and there is plenty of stagnant water, and arrive early in March. During a period
when the freshwater pools were dried up near Odessa, the Storks were very rare, and those
which did appear, contrary to their usual habits, frequented the sea-shore, where they fed on
several species of Mytilus. Canon Tristram records it from Palestine as " a regular though only
a passing migrant. During the whole of April it covers the land, suddenly appearing in the
south, and moving northwards a few miles a day. Thus we were told by some travellers who
came up to Gennesaret that the whole country about Samaria was covered with Storks. Two
days afterwards they overspread our neighbourhood, not close together, but scattered over hill
and valley, plain and marsh alike, steadily quartering the ground, seldom near one another, but
generally about a hundred yards apart, picking up snakes, lizards, frogs, or fish, according to the
locality. Just after this I had occasion to make a six days' journey to the south-east. The
Storks were everywhere, among rocks on the hills, in oliveyards, sandy plains, on the dunghills

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of villages, on the top of Nebo ; they remained apparently till they had cleared off the reptilian
harvest, and departed for the north as suddenly as they came. A very few pairs here and there
remain to breed, notably among the ruins of Gerash and Amman, perhaps also at Csesarea.
They showed great confidence in man, and are never molested by the natives."

In Egypt, Captain Shelley remarks, "during March and April I used to see immense
numbers of these birds on their way north. At times they have crowded the banks like an
army, and I have seen large sand-banks in the river white with them ; yet I believe they never
remain in the country to breed." Mr. A. E. Brehm writes that it " wanders through Egypt and
Nubia, remaining, to some extent, during the winter in small companies at Sudan, many pene-
trating further into Africa. I found that their passage through Egypt, Nubia, and Sudan is as
follows: — In 1848 they were seen about the middle of March at Chaschahba, in Kordofan, on
the durra-fields, and later on in large flocks travelling northwards; on the 1st and 2nd of
September they passed Schendi, in Southern Nubia, on their southward migration. In 1850
they were observed in Upper Egypt on the 12th of March at Khenneh, on the 14th, 18th, 20th,
22nd, and 25th of March between Khenneh and Assuan ; on the 2nd and 4th of April below
Wadi- Haifa, in Nubia, and again at the latter place on the 14th of April ; on the 11th and 27th
of September on the White Nile, and several times observed there during the winter. In 1851
from the 14th to the 30th of March and early in April by thousands near Charthum ; on the
29th of August I saw a pair of Storks at Abu-Hamed: the female having been lamed by a shot,
the male remained behind with her ; and Schinz gives a similar instance of conjugal affec-
tion. On the 15th of September they were seen in the province of Dongola, and almost daily
between Wadi-Halfa and Kohm-Ombos, in Upper Egypt. In 1852, as early as the 19th of
February, above Esneh; on the 21st, 23rd, and 24th of February near Assuan, on the 28th at
Edfu, and on the 5th of March at Thebes." In Algeria and North-western Africa it is not
rare. Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., writes that "as early as the 15th of February I noticed a Stork
feeding in a marsh at Oued el Alleg (river of leeches), and got within fifty yards. I was informed
that this was the day on which they usually returned to Medea, where a pair were repairing a
nest on one of two chimneys at the gable end of a house on the 1st of the following month. The
Stork leaves its nest with a spring, getting quite clear before it ventures to expand its huge wings.
It does not draw in its legs, which are so long that they exceed the tail by nearly twelve inches.
Its feet appear to touch when it is flying ; but when it is just about to alight they are parted
widely. Both sexes clap the bill, but never without first throwing back the head." Loche states
that it is " very common in Algeria from the end of February to the end of September ; its food
is exclusively animal, consisting of reptiles, mollusks, worms, and fish, and occasionally young
rats, mice, and birds ; it utters no cry at any time, merely making a clattering noise by striking
the two mandibles of its bill together. As is well known, the same pair return to the old nesting-
place year after year ; incubation lasts thirty days ; and the young are fed with half-digested food
from the parents' bill." Von Homeyer saw about twenty-five on Lake Halloula, and believes
that they breed in Algeria ; and Canon Tristram writes that it is respected in the Sahara as in
Holland. It builds on the tops of the " semaurs " or mosque-towers of the M'Zab. Its food
there consists of lizards of the desert. Mr. Taczanowski informs me that in the winter of 1866
in several localities in Algeria he " met with isolated individuals wintering there, and not till the

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beginning of March did they arrive in numbers and establish themselves at their breeding-
haunts. In the town of Constantine nests are to be seen on the houses of the Arabs. They
arrive a few at a time, and I have never seen such large bands as are met with in Europe during
migration." Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake records it as exceedingly numerous in Tangier and Eastern
Morocco, where it is held sacred ; and he counted more than sixty individuals together in one
place ; and Major Irby informs me that " the White Stork is much more abundant in Morocco
than in Andalucia, though plentiful in some localities in the latter countiy. The time of migra-
tion is, of course, about the same on both sides of the Straits, the earliest date of arrival I noticed
in Andalucia being on the 11th of January; nearly all leave by the end of September.

" On the African side in many situations, but always in the immediate vicinity of villages,
they nest on trees, apparently in preference to houses, and are irregular as to the time of nesting.
On the same day (25th of April) I found young birds, eggs, and unfinished nests, and, to show
how varied is the time of migration, I saw a flight of about a hundred flying northwards at an
immense height. As they passed on over the ' Storkery ' they lowered themselves to within a
hundred yards or so of the nests, as if to see how affairs were going on ; after hovering round
a few minutes, they worked up in a gyrating flight to their original elevation, and went off in a
northerly direction, doubtless to the delight of the resident Storks, who were in a state of great
agitation and disturbance at their appearance." It occurs on the Canaries, where, however, it
is only a straggler and never remains there to breed. Messrs. Berthelot and Webb when in
Lanzarote (Canaries) saw a large flock arrive there.

To the southward it has, according to Lichtenstein, been obtained in Senegambia ; and
Mr. J. H. Gurney refers to a specimen as being in a collection from Natal, but not sent by
Mr. Ayres. Andersson records it as " abundant at Lake Ngami, and in many localities of the
lake-regions; it is also quite common during the wet season in Ondonga and in Northern
Damara Land, sometimes occurring in large flocks ; and it is seen occasionally during the same
season in Southern Damara Land." To the Cape of Good Hope it is, according to Layard,
" only a migratory visitant, following the flight of locusts, on which it feeds. It is not confined
to any locality, but pursues its prey to all parts of the country.

" My valued correspondent, Mrs. Barber, however, informs me that it breeds in the interior.
She writes as follows : — ' My authority for saying that the White Locust-Cranes build their nests
in the interior is good, or I should not have mentioned it. When my brother Septimus was
lion-hunting in the Free State he saw the hills where great numbers of their old nests were.
Mr. William Stubbs (of the Queen's-Town district), a good observer of nature, and " a good man
and true," is another of my authorities ; he told me that he saw their nests upon the low rocky
hills near St. John's river. Like the small locust-birds, they always build their nests in the
neighbourhood of large swarms of young locusts, so that they may have plenty of food for their
young ones; for young locusts remain long near the spot where they are hatched.'"

To the eastward it is met with to Japan, unless, as supposed by Mr. Swinhoe, the Japanese
Stork should prove to be a distinct species. Mr. Blanford and De Filippi both record it from
Persia, the former having met with it breeding in that country ; and he also observed it in Balu-
chistan. Dr. Jerdon refers to it as " abundant in the Deccan, the west of Central India, and the
N.-W. Provinces, rare in the south of India, and unknown in Bengal or in any of the countries to

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the eastward. It is only a cold-weather visitant, coming in October and departing by the end of
March." Mr. Blyth, however, calls in question Dr. Jerdon's statement as to its absence in Bengal,
and writes on this subject as follows : — " Dr. Jerdon asserts that the White Stork is ' unknown in
Bengal.' Two or three or more may be obtained almost every season in the Calcutta bazar ; and
I have been assured that this species occurs in large flocks not far in the interior."

Wherever the Stork is met with in Europe (excepting in those countries where it is rare, as
in Great Britain, where, like all rare birds which visit our shores, it is at once shot and stuffed),
it is a sacred bird, and enjoys the same protection that the Robin does with us. Mr. Alfred
Benzon, in the notes on this bird which he has sent to me from Denmark, points out that
" the Stork is essentially a species that figures in legend and nursery tales, and is the bird most
often refered to by Hans Chr. Anderssen in his well-known tales. In every nursery throughout
the country it is known as the bird that brings the children to the house. How this legend
first arose it is hard to say ; but probably it was from the first a woman's invention to keep the
children's ideas pure and innocent, and to prevent them from prying into matters which they
had much better leave alone. This legend is found, with sundry variations, in many of our
nursery rhymes, amongst which I may name the following : —

Der gaar en Mand udi Moser A man walks in the marshes

Som boerer roede Hoser. Wearing red breeches.

Snart bringes en Toes og snart en Pork, Now he brings a lass, now a lad ;

Vil Du vide hvem det er ? Det er en Stork. Would you wish to know what it is ? a Stork.

" The children often use the following rhyme : —

Stork, Stork, Lange-Ben, Stork, Stork, with long legs,

Skynd Dig lidt og vser ej sen, Hurry on, and don't be late,

Flijv hjem hvser min Moder boer Ply to where my mother lives,

Og bring mig en Idle Broker. And bring me a little brother.

the last two lines being varied as follows : —

Sosg Vester, soeg (Ester, Seek westward, seek eastward,

Og bring mig en bile Soester. And bring me a little sister.

" As with children, so with the peasantry, tales passed down from parent to child get to be
fully believed ; and the tale that the bird throws down an egg or a young bird from the nest is
now firmly believed, and considered by the more illiterate of the peasantry to be a sort of offering
like that intended by Abraham when he bound Isaac to sacrifice him ; whereas, on the other
hand, the more matter-of-fact peasants consider that the bird pays its rent thus. The tale that
the Storks hold a court of justice amongst themselves, and punish any one that has been guilty
of a crime, especially of a matrimonial delinquency, belongs to the same category ; and a well-
educated man lately assurred me in full earnest that he himself once witnessed the following
scene : — A Goose egg had been put in a Stork's nest in the place of a Stork's egg, which latter
had been taken away ; and when the Gosling was hatched out the male Stork flew away, and
returning with several others they all walked round the nest, clappering their bills, and after
carefully examining the Gosling for some time, they attacked the female Stork and killed her
as a punishment for her supposed faithlessness. This statement, however, cannot be trusted, as

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Mr. Fischer changed eggs of the White Stork for those of the Black Stork, and they were
hatched, and the young birds brought up without any apparent hesitation on the part of the
foster-parents.

" The peasantry also look on the Stork as a sort of prophet ; for if when it first arrives it is
dirty from having been about in the marshes, they look for a damp season ; but if, on the other
hand, it is clean, they say that it will be a dry one. On the Danish islands the peasants believe
that, if the first time a man sees a Stork it is sitting still, he will be a wanderer, but if, on the
contrary, the Stork is on the wing, he will remain in one place. In Jutland they have an old
rhyme in the peasant dialect as follows : —

Nser a sier en flijw When I see it fly

Ska a blijw, I shall stay,

Nser a sier en stoe When I see it stand

Ska a goe. I shall go.

" Everywhere in Denmark the Stork is a peaceful and protected bird, except on Bemholm,
where it does not breed, and where, if one shows itself, it is generally shot down. The peasantiy
hold it sacred, and consider that it acts as a sort of protector or house-god to the house on which
it places its nests ; and they therefore protect it to such an extent that it is most difficult to
obtain its eggs. It builds not only on houses standing alone, but in the villages and small
towns. On some houses there are several nests ; and the villagers put an old wheel or something
of the sort on the roof, so as to give a suitable place for a nest, and thus entice the bird to build
there. It builds in trees standing alone, and also in those in the forest ; and in Seeland small
colonies may be found on trees not far apart from each other. It is peaceful and trustful ; and
the Sparrows and Wrens build in full confidence in the huge structure forming the foundation
of its nest ; and this is the more curious, as it will sometimes feed on young birds and eggs. It
is easily tamed ; and instances are on record (when after its arrival there has been snow and cold
weather) of its having taken refuge in the cow-houses, and made itself quite at home amongst the
cattle until the weather changed and allowed it to resume its usual avocations in the open air.

" It feeds on almost all sorts of small animals, but especially on frogs, insects, and larvae, and
especially on May-bugs (Melolontha vulgaris), fish, mice, rats, snails, and moles, and is said also
to pick up small chickens and ducklings when nothing else comes handy; poisonous snakes, such
as vipers, it is said to kill, letting them first exhaust their poison on the feathers of its wing,
which it uses as a shield. Its flesh is said not to be eatable. The female incubates the eggs,
and during the time she sits is fed with great assiduity by the male ; and both parents feed the
young till they migrate. They live in strict monogamy; and the male bird is excessively jealous,
not permitting any slip in the morals of his spouse. Sometimes an egg or a young bird is
thrown out of the nest ; for what reason I cannot tell, but believe that it is when food is scarce ;
or the young bird thus cast out may be weakly and defective, or has been sat on and killed.
The nest is a large structure of branches and twigs, almost a cart-load in size, neatly lined with
grass, straw, or any other suitable material. In a new nest the sides are not high ; but in an old
one they are built up nearly as high as a man ; and sometimes the materials are so piled up that
the peasant on whose house the nest is placed is obliged, after the bird leaves, to take away a
portion so as to take the weight off the house ; and this is the more necessary, as the Stork adds

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n

to its nest every year. If the nest is removed to another place, the Stork takes possession of it
next season; and sometimes a peasant sells a Stork's nest to a neighbour, so as to bring him
luck. The Stork lays about the latter half of May, from three to five white eggs, which are pure
white, and in size from 70 by 54 to 83 by 56 millimetres, the average size being about 80 by 55
millimetres."

My first acquaintance with the Stork was made when a lad at school in Holstein. I had
been there already some time before the Storks arrived ; and a nest being outside, on the end of a
barn, in sight of the windows, I have often missed my lessons by remaining at the window to
watch these birds. The male bird arrived about a week before his mate, and took possession of
his nest after a most careful examination of it ; and, from his grave looks and careful inspection
of the domicile, he must have felt like a thrifty paterfamilias when a long builder's estimate for
house-repairs is spread out before him. However, he did not let the grass grow beneath his red
feet, but soon started to work to repair and add to the already huge structure. When the female
arrived she was greeted with evident affection ; and, to judge from the clattering of their bills,
they must have discussed matters most thoroughly. Soon after her arrival all family matters
were comfortably settled, and the business of nidification commenced in earnest. When the
female was sitting she was fed with great affection by her attentive husband; and, so far as I
could judge, frogs and field-mice appeared to form the chief portion of the food brought by him.
With a field-glass I could observe them well, and often amused myself by so doing. I was soon
initiated into the strange legends respecting the Stork so current amongst the German peasantry
by my great ally the Haus-Knecht, a tall, handsome lad, rejoicing in the name of Joseph, pro-
bably because his qualities were any thing but Joseph-like. Joseph assured me with great
earnestness that luck was certain to keep to the house on which the Stork built ; and I fully
believe that, had the Stork deserted, he would have considered himself and all the household
lost beyond redemption. He likewise assured me that the Stork is a most regular tenant and
strict husband, and that he paid his rent by throwing down a feather the first year, an egg the
second, and a young bird the third year ; and that in case his wife were not most proper in her
behaviour he took the law into his own hands, there being evidently no Stork Court of Probate
and Divorce, and made short work of her. The Holstein peasantry believe that the Storks hold
a sort of court of justice on an offending member of their community, and call it a Storchgericht,
or Stork-court. I once saw a lot of Storks collected on a large peat-bog making a great clattering
noise with their beaks, which lasted some time, and was followed by an onslaught upon one
individual, who, as the Americans say, " went under" in no time. This happened just before the
time of migration ; and my own impression is, that the unfortunate victim was a wounded or
weakly bird unfit to bear the fatigues of the journey, and, like wise birds, his comrades preferred
to put him out of his misery rather than allow him to pine and die by inches when they left and
he could not find subsistence.

Dr. Jerdon, writing on Indian ornithology, states that, " from the open country the Stork
frequents, it is well adapted for being hawked, and it is accordingly a common and favourite
quarry for a good Bhyri. It is the most gregarious of all the Storks ; and immense flocks are
sometimes seen. The name Lag-lag is correctly applied to this species by all falconers ; and I see
that it is the Leglek of the Bucharian Tartars, according to Pallas."

2z

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The specimen figured is an adult female in my own collection, obtained, with eggs, in Albania
by Mr. Hanbury Barclay ; and the male described is the one in Mr. J. H. Gurney's, jun., collection,
referred to below.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, $ (with eggs). Albania, April 1872 {Hanbury Barclay).

E Mus. J. H. Gurney,jun.
a, s • Leadenhall Market, April 20th, 1867. b. Nice. c. Southern France.

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'.

BLACK STORK.

CIUINIA NIGRA.

309

CICONIA NIGEA.

(BLACK STORK.)

Ciconia fusca, Brisson, Orn. v. p. 362, pi. 31 (1760).

Ardea nigra, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 235 (1766).

Ardea nigra, L., Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 623 (1788).

Ardea atra, L., Gm. torn. cit. p. 641 (1788).

Ardea chrysopelargus, Licht. Rer. Nat. Rar. Hamb. p. 284 (1793).

Ardea chrysopelargus, Licht., Wagl. Syst. Av. no. 9 (1827).

Ciconia nigra (L.), Cuv. Regn. Animal, i. p. 513 (1829).

Ciconia fusca, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 576 (1831).

Ciconia nigra (L.), C. L. Brehm, torn. cit. p. 576 (1831).

Melanopelargus, Reichenb. (Ciconia nigra, L.), Syst. Av. pi. 165. f. 453, 454 (1850).

Melanopelargus niger, Reichenb., Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 105. no. 99 (1857).

Cigogne noire, French ; schtoarzer Storch, schwarzer JReiher, Aist, German ; Cicogna nera,
Cicogna niura, Italian ; Grua, Cicogna senda, Maltese ; sort Stork, Danish ; svart Stork,
Swedish.

Figures notabiles.

DAubenton, PL Enl. 399 ; Werner, Atlas, Coureurs, pi. 21 ; Fritsch, Vog. Eur. pi. 41. fig. 2,
pi. 44. fig. 3; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. xxxii. ; Sundevall, Sv. Fogl. pi. xlvii. fig. 2; Gould,
B. of Eur. pi. 284 ; id. B. of G. B. iv. pi. 31; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 229 ; Schlegel,
Vog. Nederl. pi. 200 ; Roux, Orn. Prov. pi. 325 ; Reichenbach, I. c.

cf ad. corpore supra, collo et pectore superiore nigricanti-fuscis nitore metallico virescente et cupreo resplen-
dentibus : dorso, alis et cauda sordidioribus : pectore imo et abdomine albis : rostro, pedibus, mento et
orbitis lsevibus rubris : iride fusca.

2 haud a mari distinguenda.

Av.juv. nigricanti-fuscus pallidior quaui adultus : capitis et colli plumis albido terminatis, rostro et pedibus
fusco-olivaceis.

Adult Male (Brunswick, 15th May). Head, neck, fore part of the breast, and upper parts generally, black,
glossed with metallic reflections ; crown, chin, and nape, and also the lower part of the neck, very richly
glossed with coppery and purplish reflections, in some lights becoming violet, rest of the neck glossed
with green similar to the shade on a cock's tail ; back, tail, and wings brownish black, more indistinctly
glossed with metallic purple, lower part of the breast and remainder of the underparts pure white ;
beak, naked skin round the eye,, and legs red, with an orange tinge; iris reddish brown; claws black.
Total length 39 inches, culmen 7'4, wing 21-1, tail 9"5, tarsus 7"5, bare portion of tibia 4-5.

Adult Female. Similar in plumage to the male.

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Young of the year (Brunswick, October) . Differs from the adult in being duller in colour, the head and
neck dull metallic brown, each feather terminated with dirty white, giving a spotted appearance ; the
beak and legs olive-green, with a bluish tinge.

When rather older, or nearly adult, the head and neck lose the white spots, and the beak and legs are pale
reddish. In this plumage I have figured it.

Nestling (fide Naumann) . When first hatched it is covered with greyish white down, through which after a
time the dark feathers appear, those on the wings and tail first showing themselves, then those on the
shoulders, back, and on the sides of the head.

The Black Stork is found in Central, Southern, and, to some extent, in Northern Europe, in
Africa, and in many parts of Asia, as hereinafter stated.

In England the Black Stork is extremely rare, and is only met with as an occasional straggler.
The instances of its occurrence recorded by Mr. Harting are as follows : — " one, Somerset, May
1814 {Montagu); three, Norfolk, 1823 (Stevenson); one on the Tamar, Devon, November 1831
(Moore) ; one, Otley, Suffolk, October 1832 (Hoy) ; one, Somersetshire (Atkinson) ; one, Poole
Harbour, Dorsetshire, 22nd November, 1839 (Yarrell); one, Romney Marsh (Pemberton Bartlett,
Stevenson); one, Poole Harbour, Dorsetshire, 1849 (J. H. Gurnet/); one, Market Weigh ton
Common, Yorkshire, 1852 (Yarrell); one, Lydd, Kent, 5th May, 1856 (Dennis); one, near
Hartlepool, August 1862 (Christy Horsfall) ; one, Otmoor, November 1862 (Gould); one, West-
acre, Norfolk, 19th May, 1867 (Hamond)." This last occurrence was recorded by Mr. Stevenson,
in his 'Birds of Norfolk' (vol. ii. p. 182), as follows:—" On the 20th of May, 1867, I received a
letter from Mr. Anthony Hamond, jun., informing me that a fine Black Stork had been shot by
one of the gamekeepers in some meadows on the banks of the river Nar, at Westacre, about half-
past four in the morning of the 19th. The bird, it seems, had been observed about the same
locality on several occasions for more than a week, but had hitherto kept well out of shot ; and
only on the day previous to its death Mr. Hamond and myself had been watching a pair of
Gadwalls in the Nar, scarcely a quarter of a mile from the spot where the Stork was killed. It
proved on dissection to be an adult female, weighing over seven pounds, and measured, I am
told, six feet two inches from tip to tip of wings. Its plumage showed no signs of having been
in confinement ; and, owing to its extreme shyness, it was even at last obtained with much
difficulty. This noble specimen now forms part of the fine collection of birds at Westacre
High-house.

" Although the first time that this species has been known to be killed in this country, it is
probable that others may have visited our coast, and either escaped injury or passed wholly
unnoticed. Thus in Mr. Joseph Clarke's MS. notes on rare birds at Yarmouth and other parts
of the county, I find the following, under the head of Ciconia nigra : — ' Three were followed in
Norfolk for some days in the year 1823 ; and in 1832 one was killed in Suffolk, at Grundisburgh,
and was in the possession of a surgeon, a Mr. Ditton, of that place.' "

Mr. J. H. Gurney informs me that he has a specimen, in the authenticity of which he fully
believes, said to have been shot at or near Poole, in Dorsetshire. It does not appear ever to
have occurred in Scotland ; but it may in former years have been found in Ireland, as Dr. Scouler
(fide Thomp. B. of I. ii. p. 178) includes it in a ' Notice of Animals which have disappeared from

311

Ireland,' on the authority of the following words from Giraldus : — " Ciconise vero per totam
insulam rarissimaa sunt illse nigree." — Top. Hib. 707.

It has been met with twice in Norway, as Mr. Collett writes to me that there is a specimen
in the Christiania University Museum, which was shot at Fredrickstad, and since then one was
shot at Vang, in Hedemarken.

In Sweden it is, Dr. Sundstrom informs me, "very rare, occurring singly or in pairs, he-
quenting lonely woods far from human habitations. It has been recorded from Skane, Smaland,
Ostergotland, Vestergotland, Dalsland, Wermland, Nerike, Gestrikland, Helsingland, and on
Gottland. In the summer of 1862 one frequented Qvistbro parish, in Nerike, where I then
lived. It breeds, as also Mr. Meves informs me, at Kingsjo, in Skane, and as far north as
Gestrikland, but is with us a migrant; but, curiously enough, the only specimen obtained on
Gottland was shot in the winter. It places its nest on the lower branches of both conifer and
non-evergreen trees. A specimen is in the University Museum at Helsingfors, which was obtained
in the southern part of Finland."

In Eastern Eussia the distribution of the Black Stork is, Mr. Sabanaeff informs me, most
peculiar, as, strange to say, it appears never to be met with in the interior. It has been observed
in the Government of Vologda during migration, and breeds in the south-western portions of
Perm. Bogdanoff writes that it has been known to nest on the central Volga; and Danilotf
records it as observed only during passage in the Government of Orloff, but common in Charkoff.
Mr. Sabanaeff further writes that it breeds in the Poleffsky and Niajepetrovsk Ural, is occasionally
met with on the eastern slope, and appears annually in the district of Ekaterinburg. Falk met
with it on the Kama.

Mr. Taczanowsky, writing from Warsaw, informs me that " it is rare in Poland, and, as
elsewhere, it only breeds in swampy forests situated in different parts of the country, and always
in isolated pairs. According to Professor Kessler it is just as rare in the districts of KiefT, and
does not seem to be more numerous in Siberia." I saw it not unfrequently in Pomerania; and
Borggreve records it as " not a rare summer visitor to the eastern portion of North Germany,
where it is found in the swampy woods, being most numerous on the coast of Pomerania. In
the western portion of the empire it but rarely occurs. According to Brahts it sometimes breeds
at Neuwied, and according to Von Negelein in Oldenburg ; and Saxesen likewise states that it
nests in the Harz. Formerly it used to breed in Miinsterland, near Cassel, and other places. It
occurs sparingly in Anhalt and Holstein, and is tolerably numerous in Brandenburg." Borggreve
himself saw a flock of over a hundred individuals in the spring at Odenbruch.

In Denmark it is not uncommon, and breeds annually, as I am informed by Mr. Fischer, at
Fredrikslund. In Holland, Belgium, and Luxemburg it occurs at rare intervals during the
spring and autumn migrations, and is extremely shy. MM. Degland and Gerbe write that " it
occurs with tolerable regularity on the autumn migration in the north of France ; and many
individuals have been obtained near Quesnoy, Lille, Dunkirk, Boulogne, Montreuil-sur-Mer, and
Abbeville ; also at Nancy, Toul, Metz, and Briey, according to Godron. Near Marseilles it is
obtained nearly every year in the pine-woods bordering the sea."

I do not find it recorded by Professor Barboza du Bocage as having been met with in
Portugal ; but regarding its occurrence in Spain Lord Lilford writes to me, " the Black Stork,

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though well known, appears not to be abundant in Spain. I only once saw it in that country ;
this was on the Isla Mazon, of the Guadalquivir, early in May 1872, as we were going by steamer
to San Lucan from Seville ; the bird was conspicuous amongst many hundreds of Ciconia alba
and several small parties of Otis tarda. Major Irby sent me an immature bird killed near
Seville. I have authentic information to the effect that this species nests in certain localities of
Central and Southern Spain." Mr. Howard Saunders, writing on the ornithology of Southern
Spain, states (Ibis, 1871, p. 393) : — " I did not meet with this species in Andalucia ; but specimens
are in several museums. Near the Montes de Toledo I knew of two nests this year, both in holes
of rocks, and saw the birds belonging to one of them, which it would have taken more time and
trouble to rob than the contents were worth."

Passing eastward again we find it, according to Bailly, rare in Savoy, occurring principally
in the autumn, and but rarely during the spring migration. Savi also speaks of it as rare in
Tuscany; but, as young birds were obtained in August and September 1823, he is inclined to
believe that it has bred in that country. Professor Doderlein records its appearance in Sicily on
the passage, principally about Catania, Lentini, and Syracuse; also in the Nebrodiani mountains
some few pairs have been seen, but it has never been positively ascertained that they bred there.
In Sardinia, accoi'ding to Salvadori, it is more abundant than the White Stork. Mr. C. A.
Wright, who observed three in St. Julian's valley, Malta, in April 1852, records it (Ibis, 1864,
p. 144) as rare on that island. Lord Lilford, writing on the ornithology of the Ionian Islands
(Ibis, 1860, p. 347), says it "is very rare in these parts. The bird-stuffer at Corfu told me that
two specimens only had passed through his hands in the course of thirty years. One of these
was killed at Butrinto (Epirus), and the other in the island of Corfu."

Lindermayer (Vog. Griech. p. 153) states that but few are seen in spring, but the young
birds are not unfrequently seen early in October. It does not breed in Greece ; but he saw
numbers in June on the Bosphorus. In Southern Germany the Black Stork is but a rare
visitant during migration. The Bitter von Tschusi-Schmidhofen writes to me that " in Bohemia
they are found only during migration now, although they were breeding there some years ago.
In Moravia one old male was killed in 1847 near the Paskaner lake, and a young male was shot
in September 1851. Some few individuals are to be met with annually during migration,
according to Schwab. The Imperial Museum at Vienna possesses several specimens killed some
years ago near that city. In Austria they are rare. There are specimens in the collection at
Linz, at Flonian, and Kremsmiinster. One specimen was killed on the Inn, near Saltzburg, in
1829 ; and another was obtained in August 1867 near Bregenz." Dr. Anton Fritsch also, writing
on the ornithology of Bohemia, states that it " appears now and then in Bohemia, as at Turnau
on the Iserwiesen, near Bumburg (Lokaj), at Jicin (Br. Sckier), and near Franzensbad (Palliardi).
Formerly it used to breed near Wittingau, but has not lately been observed there." In the
countries bordering on the lower Danube it is not common. When in Servia and Wallachia I
had it described to me, and was assured that it breeds there, but never succeeded in seeing a
specimen, either preserved or alive. Messrs. Elwes and Buckley write (Ibis, 1870, p. 334) that
" a pair is to be found here and there in most parts of Bulgaria. It arrives at the same time as
the White Stork, and is just as shy and solitary as the other is sociable. The nest is usually
built in a rock in a lonely situation, and is used for many consecutive years. We saw the Black

3i;j

Stork in the Pravidy valley, and near Babadagh, where a pair were making their nest in a low
rock on the edge of the forest." An interesting account was also published by Mr. W. H. Hudleston
respecting the nidification of the Black Stork in the Dobrudscha, from which I give extracts
below. Professor Nordmann met with it in the Crimea, where, he states, it is not rare, but is
less abundant in Bessarabia. Menetries (Cat. Pais. p. 50) records it as common at Lenkoran, in
the Caucasus; and Canon Tristram writes (Ibis, 18G8, p. 326), in Palestine it is found through-
out the winter " in small flocks on the barren plains by the Dead Sea, never visiting the upper
country. I was told that they build in the oak trees in Bashan, but did not meet with them in
my hasty ride through that country."

In Northern Africa it occurs in Egypt and Nubia on the eastern side; and on the western
side it has been recorded from various localities down to the Cape colony, where Layard (B. of
S. A. p. 315) met with it; Riippell met with it occasionally in Abyssinia during the winter; and
Von Heuglin records it as found on the damp elevated plateaux of Semien and Woggera, at an
altitude of from 9000 to 10,000 feet, Captain Shelley writes (B. of E. p. 265) that it " ranges
throughout Egypt and Nubia, but is not very plentiful ;" and Mr. E. C. Taylor refers to it
(Ibis, 1859, p. 51) as seen frequently in Egypt, but less numerous than C. alba.

On the west side it has not been recorded from Algeria; but Major Irby informs me that it
occurs frequently in Morocco, and was seen by him near Tangier, where, however, it is rare.
Lichtenstein records it as occurring in Senegambia ; Beaudouin as found at Bissao ; Pel met
with it in Ashantee ; and Chapman on the Zambesi. Messrs. Finsch and Hartlaub (Vog. N.O.-
Afr. p. 720) state, on the authority of the late M. Jules Verreaux, that it is tolerably numerous
in the Cape colony, and breeds there. Vernon Harcourt records it (P. Z. S. 1851, p. 146) as
found in Madeira ; but Mr. Godman does not include it in his list of the birds of the Azores.

To the eastward the Black Stork occurs in India, China, and South-eastern Siberia.
De Filippi did not meet with it in Persia, but only in the Caucasus. Dr. A. Leith Adams
(P. Z. S. 1858, p. 508) shot a female on the Jhelum river, in the vale of Cashmere, but did not
observe it elsewhere. Dr. Jerdon (B. of I. ii. p. 735) writes, it is " rare in India. I have seen
it occasionally, and killed it in the Deccan, and also near Saugor, in Central India ; it has been
sent from the Dehra Doon to the Museum of the Asiatic Society, and is probably not very rare
in the Punjab. It frequents secluded wooded streams, rivers, and lakes, and lives chiefly on
aquatic food. It is considered one of the finest quarries for the Bhyri, and the day that a Black
Stork is killed is marked by the Indian falconer with a white stone. The Black Stork is only a
winter visitant to India." It has been met with in China ; and Mr. Swinhoe states (P. Z. S.
1871, p. 411) that it "inhabits, in small numbers, the mountains near Pekin that yield streams
containing fish, and nests on inaccessible rocks." Dr. Dybowski met with it in Dauria, where it
is, he states, tolerably common, and is called by the Buriats " Chylyn ;" and Dr. G. Eadde writes
that he saw it near Nasariin at an altitude of about 2000 feet above the sea-level ; on the Upper
Amoor and on the Lower Schilka, where the banks were steep and well wooded, this species was
common; but none were observed between the Bureja Mountains and the Ussuri, where there is
no wood. He saw three on the Tarei-nor on the 4th of May; and on the Bureja Mountains the
first were observed on the 27th of April.

In its habits the Black Stork is far less sociable than its close ally, Ciconia alba, and, unlike

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6

that species, it does not frequent the neighbourhood of dwellings, but is more usually met with
in marshes near or in the forests, or far from human habitations. It resembles the common
Stork in its general habits, but is far more shy, is found in pairs, and is not, even during the
seasons of migration, seen in companies like that species. In confinement it is wilder, and not
so easily tamed. Montagu gives some excellent notes respecting the specimen, captured in
Somersetshire, which I transcribe from the ' Linnean Transactions' (vol. xii. p. 19) as follows: —
" It made little resistance, and on the following day ate some eels that had been placed near it.
I was greatly rejoiced to receive this interesting bird alive from Mr. Austin, as its manners do
not seem to be much known. Like the White Stork, it frequently rests upon one leg ; and if
alarmed, particularly by the approach of a dog, it makes a considerable noise by reiterated
snapping of the bill, similar to that species. It soon became docile, and would follow its feeder
for a favourite morsel, an eel. When very hungry it crouches, resting the whole length of the
legs upon the ground, and supplicantly seems to demand food, by nodding the head, flapping its
unwieldy pinions, and forcibly blowing the air from the lungs with audible expirations. When-
ever it is approached the expulsion of air accompanied by repeated nodding of the head is
provoked. The bird is of a mild and peaceful disposition, very unlike many of its congeners ;
for it never makes use of its formidable bill offensively against any of the companions of its
prison, and even submits peaceably to be taken up without much struggle. From the manner
in which it is observed to search the grass with its bill, there can be no doubt that reptiles form
part of its natural food ; even mice, worms, and the larger insects probably add to its usual
repast. When searching in thick grass or in the mud for its prey, the bill is kept partly open :
by this means I have observed it take eels in a pond with great dexterity ; no spear, common in
use for taking that fish, can more effectually receive it between its prongs than the grasp of the
Stork's open mandibles. A small eel has no chance of escaping when once roused from its lurking-
place. But the Stork does not gorge its prey instantly like the Cormorant ; on the contrary, it
retires to the margin of the pool, and there disables its prey by shaking and beating with its bill,
before it ventures to swallow it. I never observed this bird attempt to swim ; but it will wade
up to the belly, and occasionally thrust the whole head and neck under water after its prey. It
prefers an elevated spot on which to repose ; an old ivy-bound weeping willow, that lies prostrate
over the pond, is usually resorted to for that purpose. In this quiescent state the neck is much
shortened by resting the hinder part of the head on the back, and the bill rests on the fore part
of the neck, over which the feathers flow partly so as to conceal it, making a very singular
appearance." Mr. A. Benzon, writing to me on its habits as observed by him in Denmark, says
that "it appears to arrive earlier and leave sooner than the common Stork. In the forests on
the peninsula it is not rare, but breeds only seldom, and not regularly on the islands, as for
instance on Seeland. It is any thing but sociable ; and but seldom more than two or three pairs
inhabit the same wood, though more commonly but one pair are found in each district. It is
much more shy and wilder than the White Stork, stronger on the wing ; and the young birds are
able to feed themselves much earlier. The young birds, which are at first covered with greyish
yellow down, are soon able to stand in the nest, and are not fed by their parents until they leave
the country as is the case with those of the White Stork. The food of this bird is more that of
the Heron than that of the common Stork; and it lives, to some extent, on fish, which it obtains
both on inland sheets of water and on the sea-coast."

315

Unlike the White Stork, which generally places its nest on a house or on a tree close to a
village or farm-house, the present species breeds in unfrequented forest districts, usually near a
small lake or swamp, and places its nest on some large tree, most commonly on a large oak or
beech, the position chosen being on one of the large side branches at some distance from the
ground. The nest itself is constructed of dried sticks, and lined with grass or moss ; the con-
struction is often but poor and slight ; and sometimes the deserted nest of some other bird is
selected to form the foundation of the Stork's nest. It is said never to breed in the immediate
neighbourhood of another of its own species, each pair keeping a considerable tract of land in
their own possession. During the breeding-season they are very shy, and most difficult of
approach, but they sit close and seldom leave the nest until an intruder is close to the tree on
which it is placed. The usual number of eggs is from three to four ; but I have had several
clutches of five, and have been told on good authority that six are sometimes deposited. It
does not always place its nest on a tree, but occasionally in a cliff; and Mr. W. H. Hudleston
gives (Ibis, 1861, p. 372) the following notes on its nidification in Bulgaria : — " The Black Stork
(Ciconia nigra) also breeds here; at least we discovered one ttest in a very peculiar position for
a bird which has the reputation of breeding in the densest thickets of impervious morasses.
The cliff in this case was about sixty feet high, the strata being horizontal or nearly so. In the
face of the upper ledge there had been at some time, artificially excavated in the soft stone, a
chamber having a sort of antechamber, which communicated by means of a couple of steps with
a crack in the rock. This crack was not difficult to reach from the top when the exact path was
once known. The chamber itself had much the appearance of a hermit's cell; but as the
aperture in the face of the cliff was the entire width of one side, the apartment was airy and
cheerful, commanding a fine view of the valley below. Altogether it was a place where one
could have had no objection to put up for a few days in case of necessity. There it was that a
pair of Black Storks had taken lodgings for the season, as we found one morning about the
27th of April. Some little time elapsed before we discovered the secret of the entrance from
the top, a fact of which the Black Storks were probably not cognizant. At the time of our first
visit there were no eggs, nor indeed was there any thing exactly worthy of the name of a nest.
But in the floor of the chamber was a circular depression about the size and shape of a large
dinner plate, not far from the edge of the aperture. For what singular purpose this depression,
evidently artificial, had been made, was to us as great a mystery as the origin of the entire
excavation. The Black Stork had evidently thought she could put it to some use; for it was
here, upon a few dry sticks which partially filled the depression, that she meant to lay her eggs.
As it was necessary for me to leave Turkey altogether about the 4th of May, it was agreed not
to approach the place again till the day of my departure. In the interim I used occasionally to
take a stroll down the valley, and seat myself on the opposite hill, where, through the telescope,
I could see the Black Stork sitting composedly on her makeshift of a nest, looking like some
spirit of darkness in its cave. Already I was counting the eggs, which would undoubtedly have
been mine but for the evil curiosity of a Transylvanian shepherd, who had noticed me spying
into the hole, and had perhaps seen us entering it. On the appointed day I rode over with my
friend R. B. Dismounting at the edge of the cliff, we crept down to the crack in the rock, and
thence through the artificial passage into the chamber itself. Neither bird nor eggs were
visible ; some great catastrophe had happened, and the eggs I had counted on, though laid,

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8

It transpired that the Transylvanian had done the deed, having probably
sucked the eggs on the spot. We sought him everywhere in the desperate hope that he might
have preserved them, perhaps also with the view of taking the change out of him in some
other way in the extremely probable event of their not being forthcoming. Fortunately for the
Transylvanian he was not to be found.

" Through the kindness of my friend I was not wholly disappointed after all. The Black
Stork returned to her nest and laid two more eggs, which he secured and brought over to England
the following summer."

Mr. A Benzon, who has taken numbers of the eggs of the Black Stork, writes to me that
they are much less in size than those of the White Stork, measuring from 64 by 50 to 70 by 53
millimetres, the average size being about 68 by 52 millimetres. In shape and grain they
resemble the eggs of C. alba ; but the colour of the inside of the blown egg is yellowish green.
Eggs in my collection, obtained by Mr. Benzon in Jutland, and by myself in Pomerania, agree
with the above description, and I therefore do not redescribe them. Dr. E. Rey informs me
that he has measured twenty eggs of the present species and twenty- six of Ciconia alia, the
former of which average in size 64-5 by 48*2, and the latter 72 - 7 by 52T millimetres; the largest
specimens of C. nigra measure 67*5 by 48 - 0, and the largest of C. alba 76*5 by 53*0; and the
smallest of the former 6T0 by 48 - 0, and of the latter 67 - 5 by 52 - 0. He further informs me that
he possesses eggs from Oldenburg, Mark-Brandenburg, Anhalt, Silesia, Pomerania, Hungary, and
Denmark.

When quite young the Black Stork utters a peculiar guttural note; but, according to
Naumann, when about six months old it ceases to utter any note, but clappers with its bill like
Ciconia alba, but not so often or so loud, nor does it make this sound when retiring to roost as
does the White Stork.

It feeds on fish, frogs, snakes, mice, worms, and various sorts of water-insects, but more
especially on small fish ; and, being extremely voracious, it does considerable damage in fish-
ponds. Naumann writes that the stomach of one he examined contained about twenty loach
(Cobitis fossilis), some of which were ten inches long; another had in its stomach three large
rudd [Cypfinus erythrophthalmus), about forty young perch (Perca fluviatilis), and several
sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus); and a third contained a roach [Cyprinus rutilus) as long
as a man's hand, about sixty perch about an inch long, and a frog.

The Black Stork must be long-lived, as a specimen lived, I am informed by Mr. Gurney, in
the Gardens of the Zoological Society about thirty years.

The specimens figured are in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, Regent's Park; and
those described were obtained near Brunswick, and are in my own collection. \

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

JE Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, s ad. Brunswick, May 15th, 1872. b, ? juv. Brunswick, October 3rd, 1872 (M. Schultz).

317

Family PLATALEID-El.

Genus PLATALEA.

Platea apud Brisson, Orn. v. p. 352 (1760).
Platalea, Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 231 (1766).

This very distinct group of birds is found in the Paraparetic, Ethiopian, Australian, Nearctic, and
Neotropical Regions, only one species inhabiting the Western Palsearctic Region.

In general habits they are not unlike the Storks ; and their flight resembles that of those
birds. They frequent marshy localities, the borders of lakes and lagoons ; and I have also seen
them close to the sea-shore. They walk sedately and slowly, and may often be seen perched on
a tree. They are shy and wary ; and as they frequent open localities, they are most difficult of
approach. Their ciy is deep and Heron-like ; and they make a clapping noise with their bill
like Storks. They place their nest on a. tree, a bush, or in the reeds — a somewhat bulky
structure of sticks and flags lined with dry flags and rushes, — and deposit three or four white
eggs spotted with pale rufous.

Platalea leucorodia, the type of the genus, has the bill long, straight, about as broad as the
head at the base, narrowed towards the middle, and then expanded into a broad disk, which is
slightly curved downwards at the tip, gape-line nearly straight ; nostrils linear, elliptical,
vertical ; space round and in front of the eye bare ; wings large and full, the first quill rather
shorter than the second, which is about equal to the third ; tail short, even ; legs long, rather
slender, the tibia bare on the lower half, reticulated ; tarsus rather stout, reticulated ; toes long,
moderately stout ; claws small, slightly arched, tapering, pointed.

In the article on the Spoonbill I used Brisson' s generic title Platea, not having taken into
consideration the fact that, according to the British-Association rules, Linnseus's genera always
take precedence of Brisson's. The Spoonbill should therefore stand as Platalea leucorodia, and
not Platea leucorodia.

*34

318

407

.

SPOONBILL.

PLATEA LEUCORODIA

319

PLATEA LEUCOBODIA.

(SPOONBILL.)

Platea, Briss. Orn. v. p. 352 (1760).

Platalea leucorodia, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 231 (1766).

Platea leucopodius, S. G. Gmelin, Reise, p. 163 (1770).

La Spatule, Buff. Ois. vii. p. 448. pi. xxiv. (1780).

Platea leucorodia (L.), Leach, Syst. Cat. M. & B. Brit. Mus. p. 33 (1816).

Platalea nivea, Cuvier, Regne An. i. p. 482 (1817), ex Buffon.

Platalea nivea, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 600, " Holland " (1831).

Platalea leucorodius, Gloger, Schles. Wirbelth.-Fauna, p. 50. no. 220 (1833).

Platalea pyrrhops, Hodgson, Gray's Zool. Misc. p. 86. no. 144, "Nipaul" (1844).

Platalea leucorodia, Linn., G. R. Gray, Hand-list, iii. p. 37 (1871).

Spatule blanche, French ; Espatula, Patera, Pilatos, Paletone, Spanish ; Palettuni, Italian ;
KovXtajoc, Greek; Lqffler, Loffelgans, Loffelreilier, German; I)e Lepelaar, Dutch; Hvid
Skeehevia, Skovenceb, Danish ; SJcegaas, Norwegian ; Warzecha, Polish ; Kolpitza, Russian ;
Boit-kar-lcaba, Moorish.

Figurce notabiles.

D'Aubenton, PL Enl. 405 ; Werner, Atlas, Gralles, pi. 4 ; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. xxxiii. ;
Fritsch, Vog. Eur. pi. 42. fig. 6 ; Sundevall, Sv. Fogl. pi. lxxvii. fig. 2 ; Gould, B. of Eur.
pi. 286 ; id. B. of G. B. iv. pi. xxxii. ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 230 ; Schlegel, Vog.
Nederl. pi. 198; Roux, Orn. Prov. pi. 310.

d ad. albus : pileo cristato : gutture imo et pectore superiore flavicanti-ochraceis : gul& et loris nudis flavi-
cantibus, ilM vix rufescente lavata : rostro versus basin nigro sordide flavicante notato, et versus apicem
flavo vix nigro notato : iride rufescente : pedibus nigricantibus.

Adult Male in spring (Spain) . Entire plumage pure white, excepting on the lower part of the neck, where it
is buffy yellow ; feathers on the nape much elongated, forming a conspicuous occipital crest, these crest-
feathers having the filaments disunited ; bill black, marked with dull yellowish, the margins dusky, the
terminal portion, or almost all the plate, yellow, marked on the upper portion with black ; loral space
pale yellow, the fore portion dusky ; bare portion of the gular region, which extends nearly three inches
from the base of the lower mandible, reddish yellow ; iris red; legs and feet dusky blackish. Total
length 32 inches, culmen 7 - 2, wing 15, tail 5, tarsus 5, bare part of tibia 35.

Winter plumage. In the winter the crest is wanting, or less developed than in the summer.

Female. Similar in plumage to the male, hut having a smaller crest.

Nestling. Covered with short, pure white down ; the beak already shows the peculiar spoon-shape charac-
teristic of this species.

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The Spoonbill inhabits Central and Southern Europe (only occasionally straggling into Northern
Europe), Northern Africa, the Azores and Canaries, ranging eastward to India and Siberia.
In Great Britain it used, some two hundred years ago, to breed in the eastern counties, but is
now only a rare straggler, though seen almost every year on our east coast. Mr. It. Gray (B. of
W. of Scotl. p. 286) considers that in Scotland it "will probably be found to be an occasional
visitant to the western islands. I am informed by Mr. H. D. Graham that this bird has been
accurately described by several residents on the Outer Hebrides to Mr. Colin M'Vean. At
Barra, especially, the species has recurred oftener than once ; on one occasion five were seen
flying together in a flock. I am unable, however, to say any thing from personal observation.
The species has also been seen on the east coast, in Tyne estuary ; and has been shot in Shetland,
where, however, it is extremely rare. In October 1859, a flock of ten were seen flying across the
Bay of Kirkwall, in Orkney, by some workpeople, who soon spread the information, which led to
the destruction of half their number. A week afterwards three more were seen, one of which
was killed, thus making the sixth ' martyr to the cause of science,' as subjects of this kind are
now mildly termed. All these specimens were young birds without the crest." From time to
time stragglers are met with in almost all parts of England, more especially on the east coast,
where numerous occurrences are recorded. Mr. Stevenson writes to me that " it visits Norfolk
almost every spring. This year no less than five were shot on Breydon in spite of the new act."
This gentleman, in his ' Birds of Norfolk,' gives very concise information respecting the nesting
of this species in Norfolk ; and I cannot do better than quote from him as follows : — " But for
the most trustworthy records of Sir Thomas Browne, it would scarcely have been credited
at the present time that this remarkable species was formerly a resident in East Anglia. This
important fact, however, is preserved to us in the following passage from Sir Thomas's notes on
the birds of Norfolk : — ' The Platea or Shovelard, which built upon the tops of high trees.
They formerly built in the hernery at Claxton and Reedham ; now at Trimley, in Suffolk. They
come in March, and are shot by fowlers, not for their meat, but for the handsomeness of the
same ; remarkable in their white colour, capped crown, and spoon or spatule-like bill.' From
so minute a description of the species, there can be no doubt as to its identity ; but even at that
time (1688) it seems, through the persecution of the fowlers, they had ceased to breed in Norfolk,
though still found at Trimley, in Suffolk, the ' handsomeness ' of their plumage rendering their
destruction as certain as in more modern times. Pennant, whose most elaborate account of the
Spoonbill was taken from a freshly killed specimen, sent him from Yarmouth by the late
Mr. Joseph Sparshall, states in the 'Appendix' to his 'British Zoology,' that 'a flock of these
birds migrated into the marshes, near Yarmouth, in Norfolk, in April 1774;' but since that time,
although an annual visitant to our shores on its migratory passage, it has come only in pairs, or
at most three or four at one time." Mr. Stevenson records the occurrence of the following speci-
mens between 1774 and 1868: — "June 1818, a pair were seen at Cromer; and one was killed
at Yarmouth in the month of May of the same year (Sheppard and Wliitear). In 1829,
Mr. Hunt remarks in his list, ' in the course of the last five or six years seven or eight of these
birds have been killed at Caister and Burgh, in the neighbourhood of Yarmouth.' Two in May
1830 (Selby) ; one May 21st, 1831; three June 1834 ; one in 1838 (Sir William Hooker's MS.); two
near Yarmouth, one at Norwich prior to 1846 (J. H. Grurney's collection); two killed at Salthouse,

321

1845 (Dowell); 1847, May 2nd, one near Yarmouth, one on the 19th at Salthouse, two seen at
Blakeney (Dowell); and on October 27th one was killed at Salthouse (Lowell); 1848, February
11th, one at Langham, and on the 15th of November one at Salthouse (Dowell); 1849, June,
one near Yarmouth, and another in the same year at Salthouse ; 1850, June 18th, one at Breydon ;
1852, a pair frequented the lake at Holkham throughout March and part of April; 1853-54, a
pair procured about this date in Hocwold fen; 1859, May 4th, one shot at Hickling; 1860, July
6th, one shot on Breydon; 1862, May, two shot on Breydon; 1863, May 15th, one shot at
Hickling, two or three seen on Breydon, and a pair shot between Lowestoft and Southwold, in
Suffolk, on the 1st of May; 1864, October 25th, one killed at Hickling, and one shot at Yar-
mouth about the same date ; 1865, May 23rd, a pair shot on Breydon, and one was killed during
the spring of this year at Sandringham, near Lynn; 1866, May 2nd, one shot on Breydon; 1867,
three or four seen in the spring about Burgh flats, but none shot; 1868, May 4th, two shot at
Yarmouth, and one killed on Breydon about the same time." At p. 189, Mr. Stevenson writes,
" from an examination of the above list of specimens it will be seen that the Spoonbill is chiefly
a spring and summer visitant to this country, since of those of which the date of occurrence is
known, only eight have appeared towards the latter part of the year — two in August, one in
September, three in October, and two in November, — the remainder in February (one), March
and April (two), May (eighteen), June (ten), and one in July, whilst the large flock at Yarmouth,
in 1774, is said to have arrived in April. The majority of specimens obtained are decidedly in
immature plumage. Unlike the Stork the Spoonbill, though similarly persecuted, does not often
betake itself far inland, relying mainly for subsistence on the daily renewed feast afforded by the
ebb and flow of our tidal waters ; and hence the large proportion of them that are seen and
procured on Breydon. The Salthouse marshes, until their drainage and embankment in 1851,
were also a most favourite resort of the Spoonbill, as well as of the Avocet, a somewhat similar
feeder ; but this spot is no longer adapted to their habits. An occasional straggler or two may
be seen, however, along the flat shores of the wash ; and Hickling, near Yarmouth, appears to
be the only broad that has special attractions for this singular species." Mr. Harting records it
from Kingsbury reservoir, close to London ; and I find various records of its occurrence on the
south coast of England. Mr. Gatcombe also informs me that immature birds are occasionally
met with on the mud banks of the tidal rivers near Plymouth. On the west coast of England it
is rarer than on the eastern side, and but occasional instances of its occurrence are on record.
Mr. Cecil Smith informs me that " it has been occasionally met with in Somersetshire ; besides
the one recorded by Montagu, there is the skull and bill of one in the Museum at Taunton,
which was shot in that county ; but no date is given." In Ireland it is likewise recorded by
Thompson as a rare straggler. This gentleman enumerates (B. of Ireland, ii. p. 178) many
instances of its occurrence, the first on record being one killed near Ballydrain, county of
Antrim, previous to 1808. The others are as follows: — three near Dingle, county of Kerry, in
February 1832; one near Swords, county of Dublin, in November 1841; one near Youghal, in
November 1843; one, county of Wicklow, in October 1844; one, Killag, county of Wexford, in
November 1844; one near Youghal, in October 1845; and one in the county of Kerry, in
November 1846. In several of these instances of specimens having been obtained, other
Spoonbills were seen but not procured.

322

In Scandinavia it is exceedingly rare, and Mr. Collett informs me that he only knows of two
specimens having been obtained in the south of Norway — one in 1832 and one in 1836. The
instances of its occurrence in Sweden are not very reliable. Linnseus wrote that it was said to
occur in Westerbotten and Lapland ; and Nilsson saw specimens in Paykull's and Thunberg's
collection, said to have come thence ; but he remarks that these gentlemen were not altogether
reliable in their statements. Sadelin (Fauna Fennica, p. 25) writes that it occasionally straggles
from Lapland to Northern Finland ; but this may be doubted, as Professor Malmgren informs
me that there is but one undoubted instance of its occurrence, one, now in the collection at
Fredrikshamn, having been obtained on Hogland, in the Gulf of Finland.

It has, Ulianine states, been once killed at Archangel ; Sabanaeff records it from the
Government of Vladimir ; and Bogdanoff met with it in the spring at Lizran. Sabanaeff found
it breeding on the skirts of the Shadrinsk and Cheliabiansk districts, and met with it as high as
56|° N. lat. It is, Mr. Taczanowski informs me, " accidental and very rare in Poland, and,
according to Professor Kessler, equally so in the Ukraine. Tyzenhauz states that it nests in the
marshes of Silesia and Lithuania, as also in Courland and Livonia. I once saw a flock of five
on the Vistula, near Warsaw ; and in the Warsaw Museum there is a fine male which was killed
near Bozese." Borggreve records one instance of its occurrence at Danzig in June, two near
Stettin, one on the Rhine ; and it has been twice met with by Von Negelin on the coast of the
North Sea. In Northern Germany generally it appears to be a rare bird ; and it is exceedingly
rare in Denmark. Kjserbolling states that he saw the head of one which was shot in Jutland,
and that, according to Mr. Teilmann, it has been shot on Fano. Mr. Scheel also showed him
the head and wings of one shot in Northern Seeland in 1848 ; and he refers to one having been
said to have been shot near the Ringkjobing Fiord in 1850.

According to De Selys it occurs in spring and autumn on the coasts of Flanders, being rare
on the Scheldt, and very rare on the Meuse. At the same seasons, but even more rarely, it visits
Luxembourg. In Holland, Schlegel writes, " it is found in the neighbourhood of the large
rivers, at Biesbosch, Nieuwerkerk, on the Ijssel at Rozenburg, and on the Maas ; it breeds in
Holland, arriving there in April and leaving in September." Baron von Droste-Htilshoff states
that it has not been observed on Borkum ; but he remarks (J. f. O. 1868, p. 406) that it is
curious that it should be so numerous between Norden and Greetzieht, at Just, and Nordernei.
Messrs. Degland and Gerbe write that "it is of regular passage in spring and autumn in the
north of France, and is not rare at those seasons on the coasts of Picardy, Normandy, and
Brittany, occurring more rarely in the central provinces." Professor Barboza du Bocage includes
it in his list of the birds of Portugal as occurring at Alemtejo ; and it is also found in Spain,
where, as I am informed by Lord Lilford, it was "very abundant in the marshes of the Guadal-
quivir in May 1869: it occasionally breeds in that district. I lately obtained two eggs taken
near San Lucar de Barnameda last year, 1872." Mr. Howard Saunders, writing on the orni-
thology of Southern Spain (Ibis, 1871, p. 394), says that it breeds in the wooded " pajareras,"
but is not very common ; and Major Irby informs me that "it is common in the marshes on both
sides of the Straits of Gibraltar, arriving in April and leaving in November. Some remain to
nest near Casa Vieja."

Passing eastward again, I find it recorded by Bailly as rare in Savoy, and by Savi as also
rare in Tuscany, generally occurring in the spring.

32?]

Professor Doderlein states that " it is not very common in Sicily, and is generally obtained
at the time of the April and October migrations, principally about Catania, Lentini, Syracuse,
and Trapani." Mr. A. B. Brooke speaks of it as common in Sardinia in the winter ; and it has
been several times obtained at Malta. Mr. C. A. Wright (Ibis, 1864, p. 144) writes that the
only instances of its having been shot or seen there that have come to his knowledge are : — " one
observed on Fort Mandel Island, in May 1858; the same or another was shot a few days after-
wards at St. Paul's Bay, and another a few weeks later. Three were killed in Gozo in the spring
of 1860, and another at Marsascirocco in November of the same year. One of two was killed in
May 1861, and two others in June 1862. Another (young), which is in my possession, was
obtained at the Salini on the 21st September, 1862." Lord Lilford writes (Ibis, 1860, p. 348),
it "occurs sparingly in Epirus in severe winters. I saw a few at Livitazza in January 1858.
More common in Greece about Petala and the Gulf of Lepanto. I could not hear of the
occurrence of this species in the island of Corfu." Lindermayer (Vog. Griechenl. p. 153) states
that " large numbers appear in the Peloponnesus and on the islands of Greece during the
equinoctial gales, but remain only a short time, and then migrate towards its breeding-haunts
northwards. On its return journey it is common in the Peloponnesus; but I have not observed
it in Eumelia."

In Southern Germany it is found from time to time, but is not common. The Eitter von
Tschusi-Schmidhofen informs me that he knows of one having been obtained in Moravia by
Mr. Schwab, and a male was killed near Kagram, in Austria. Dr. A. Fritsch states (J. f. O.
1871, p. 392) that "it has been several times met with in Bohemia. In 1828 ten individuals
were seen on the Bestrever Lake, near Frauenberg; but in 1863 about a hundred appeared in
Southern Bohemia, evidently driven from Hungary owing to the dry season. They remained
from May to August on the islands in the Municer and Bestrever Lakes, but curiously enough
did not breed there." In Hungary and in the marshy country along the Danube it breeds
commonly ; and it is likewise recorded by Professor von Nordmann as common on the shores of
the Black Sea, nesting on the trees and in the reed-beds. Menetries (Cat. Pais. p. 50) says that
it is found along the Terek river, and in the marshes near Lenkoran ; and Canon Tristram,
though he did not himself obtain it in Palestine, saw a specimen in a local collection at
Jerusalem. Captain Shelley (B. of Egypt, p. 264) records it as " very plentiful throughout
Egypt and Nubia. It may constantly be seen in flocks on the sandbanks of the river and in the
great marshy lakes of Lower Egypt and the Fayoom." Dr. von Heuglin (Ibis, 1859, p. 346)
met with it on the Red Sea in summer and autumn, but says that it does not occur further south
than Dahalak. He remarks that the specimens he obtained were very small in size. Dr. A. E.
Brehm writes (J. f. O. 1854, p. 80) that in Sudan it is replaced by PL tenuirostris, which latter
species, however, is not so numerous as PL leucorodia.

In North-western Africa the present species is found. Loche records its occurrence in
Algeria at all seasons of the year in considerable numbers ; but he adds that he has never been
able to discover its nesting-place. Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake, in his article on the ornithology of
Tangiers and Morocco, speaks of it as being very rare. It occurs in the Azores, Madeira, and
Canaries. Mr. F. DuCane Godman says that a Portuguese gentleman in St. Michaels informed
him that " five or six had been shot at Sete Cidades a few years previously ;" and Dr. Carl Bolle
writes (J. f. O. 1855, p. 176), "it occasionally visits Teneriffe during the winter. Berthelot says

324

6

that one visited a garden in Santa Cruz daily to catch the gold fish in a small pond, until at last
it was shot by the proprietor;" and he further writes (J. f. O. 1857, p. 339), "it often straggles
to the Canaries, and has been frequently shot there. It is said to visit and remain for a long
period at the Lake of Arguineguin :" Mr. Viera believes that it is a resident ; but this Dr. Bolle
doubts.

In Southern Africa the present species is replaced by a closely allied form, P. tenuirostris,
Temm. (P. chlororhyncha, Drap.), which has the legs red, the face bare to behind the eyes, and
the beak yellow.

To the eastward the Spoonbill is found in India, Siberia, and, according to Pere David, is
found rarely in China.

Messrs. Dickson and Ross record the present species (P. Z. S. 1839, p. 134) as found breeding
at Erzeroom ; and Dr. Jerdon writes (B. of India, ii. p. 764), it " is found throughout India, not
perhaps in great abundance, but generally diffused, frequenting rivers, lakes, and tanks. It is
generally met with in small parties, occasionally in rather large flocks ; feeds in shallow water,
moving its bill about from side to side, and picking up various aquatic insects and larvse, small
Crustacea and mollusks, and also frogs and fish. It is very frequently seen in company with the
White Ibis, both when feeding and when flying from one part of the country to another. The
Spoonbill breeds, occasionally at all events, in this country, though probably many migrate to
Central Asia at the breeding-season." Burgess found the nest in lofty trees ; and Layard also
met with them in Ceylon. Colonel Sykes, who met with the Spoonbill in Dukhun, remarks
(P. Z. S. 1832, p. 159) that the Indian bird is a trifle larger than our European Spoonbill, but
otherwise is absolutely identical. Professor Schlegel (Mus. Pays-Bas, Oiconke, p. 21) includes
specimens from India amongst those referable to our European species, and therefore looks on
them as identical. Respecting the occurrence of the Spoonbill in Siberia, Dr. Radde writes that
he " can confirm Pallas's statement that it is to be met with annually on the lakes near the Selenga
and Argunj. An old bird was shot on the 17th of April, 1856, on the Onon-Borsa brook; and
this appears to be the time it arrives. When travelling from the mouth of the Ussuri up the
river I twice saw flocks of from eight to ten individuals above the mouth of the Sungari in
July. Mr. Rotscheff brought two old birds from the Upper Ussuri." Dr. Radde writes that the
Siberian bird agrees precisely with European specimens ; but I think it not improbable that the
Japanese species may occur there. Temminck and Schlegel (Fauna Japonica, p. 119) describe
two species of Spoonbill from Japan differing from each other chiefly in size, but from our
European bird in having a longer bill, devoid of ridges on the upper surface, and purer in colour
(in the description brownish yellow, but in the illustration pure yellow), and the naked portion
of the throat is smaller. Of these two species the one, PL major (torn. tit. p. 119, pi. lxxv.),
has the face much less bare than the second, PL minor {torn. cit. p. 120, pi. lxxvi.), being also
larger in size. Professor Schlegel (Mus. Pays-Bas, Ciconiw, p. 21) unites these two species,
stating that they vary considerably in size ; but he still keeps the Japanese species, under the
name of Platalea major, separate from our Spoonbill, which, he states, is replaced by that species
in Japan and Southern China. Mr. Swinhoe records a Spoonbill, under the name of PL leucorodia,
as occurring at Amoy and between Takoo and Pekin ; but, as above stated, Professor Schlegel
refers the Chinese bird to PL major. In Australia there are two species : — P. melanorhynchos,

325

Reich., having the bare space on the face, the beak and the legs black; and P.flavipes, Gould,
which has the legs and beak saffron-yellow. The American Spoonbill is easily recognizable by
the rosy tint of its plumage, the lower portion of the neck and the larger wing-coverts being rich
scarlet ; this richly coloured bird inhabits the Southern United States and South America down
to Brazil. I often met with it when collecting in Mexico.

The Spoonbill frequents marshy localities, more especially in the neighbourhood of the sea-
coast, and affects the open marshes in preference to those covered with high reeds or where there
are bushes : mud banks and marshy localities where the soil is of clay appear to be preferred by
it ; and in its habitat, and indeed at a distance in appearance, it bears some resemblance to the
common Stork, and like that bird it may often be seen perched on a tree at a considerable
altitude from the ground ; for it usually settles on a dry branch at the very top of the tree.
When moving about in search of food it walks leisurely and slowly, and has a peculiarly grave
and sedate gait, as if determined to quarter the ground in a thoroughly business-like manner,
and not hurry itself unnecessarily. Easily distinguishable from afar, owing to its white plumage
and large size, it is very shy, and it is difficult to approach within gunshot-range of it. I have
myself only observed our European Spoonbill in a wild state on the Danube, where I never
succeeded in shooting one; but I had ample opportunities of observing its American relative,
PL ajaja, which I have repeatedly shot, but could only do so by hiding and shooting it as it
passed overhead. The flight of the Spoonbill somewhat resembles that of the common Stork ; it
carries its neck and bill stretched straight out, as also the legs, and moves its extended wings with
easy flaps, occasionally soaring in circles at a considerable altitude. I do not recollect to have
heard the note of the Spoonbill ; but it is described by Naumann as deep and Heron-like, and at
its nesting-places it is said to be noisy. Like the Stork it makes a clappering noise with its bill,
especially when angry ; but it does not make so loud a sound as that species.

It breeds in Holland ; but I do not find any record of its having of late been found nesting
elsewhere in Northern Europe, though in Hungary and South-eastern Europe it breeds nume-
rously. It places its nest usually on some lofty tree, if such is to be found in the neighbour-
hood of the marshes which it frequents ; but should no trees be within reach, it nests on the
low willow-bushes or in the reeds. Like the Herons it usually breeds in company, especially
when it nests in trees. The nest itself somewhat resembles that of the Heron, being constructed
of dry twigs and flags, lined with dry flags or rushes, and rather shallow, but wide and bulky.
Messrs. Dickson and Ross, who met with it breeding near Erzeroom, write (P. Z. S. 1839, p. 134)
that "several nests are placed near each other, about the middle of the river. They are made of
reeds, bound together by weeds, which are piled up a few inches above the water's edge. Over
this foundation dried reeds are placed in various directions to form the body of the nest, which
is not lined with any thing, and is just large enough to allow one bird to sit and the other to
stand."

The eggs, from three to four in number, are pure white in colour, when fresh with a faint
tinge of blue, and are sparingly spotted and blotched with pale red. The texture of the shell is
rough, and looks dull, almost chalky, and the pores are deep and clearly distinguishable. In
size, eggs in my collection from Holland and Hungary measure from 2f§ by Iff to 2f § by If -J.

The food of the Spoonbill consists of small crustaceans, fish, small frogs, and, to some extent,

4n

326

8

of vegetable matter, as several field naturalists who have examined the contents of the stomachs
of specimens shot record the presence of vegetable matter, especially portions of water-plants.
Mr. J. E. Harting examined the stomachs of the two specimens obtained at Kingsbury Reservoir
in October 1865, and writes as follows: — "That of the female was almost empty, with the
exception of a few small fish-bones (from their size, probably roach), a small mass of vegetable
fibre, together with the fruit of a Sparganium and a single carpel of a Potamogeton, probably
P. pectinatus. That of the male was distended with a larger quantity of small bones and
remains of fish. The bones had the appearance of being ground up small, being all very much
of one size, although the inner coating of the stomach was by no means rough or hard, and there
were no traces of gravel or quartz, nor, indeed, of any substance which would produce or aid
such a result."

The specimen figured is a living bird in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, that described
being one shot in Spain by Major Irby and now in my collection.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.
( >> 6 > b, 2 ■ Butrinto, Albania (H. Barclay) . c, 6 . Spain (Major Irby) . d, puttus. Holland (Baker) .

E Mus. H. B. Tristram.
a, 2 ■ Boulai, Egypt, March 15th, 1858 (H. B. T.).

E Mus. Par on A. von Hilgel.
a, 6 ad. Bulgaria, 1872.

E. Mus. J. II. Gurney,jun.

a, 2 . Leadenhall Market, March 25th, 1867 (/. H. G.Jun.).

327

Family IBIDM.

Genus IBIS.

Ibis, Audouin, Expl. somm. d. PI. des Ois. de l'Egypte, &c, p. 299 (1825).

Geronticus apud Wagler, Isis, 1832, p. 1232.

Ibis, Riippell, Syst. Uebers. taf. 45 (1845).

Comatibis apud Reichenbach, Av. Syst. Nat. p. 26 (1850).

Many authors have subdivided the Ibises into numerous genera ; and the two latest authorities
who have written on the subject both separate the single species we have in the Western
Palsearctic Region from the genus Ibis — Mr. D. G. Elliot placing it in the genus Comatibis
(P. Z. S. 1877, p. 493), whereas Dr. Anton Reichenow (J. f. 0. 1877, p. 149) places it with Ibis
calva and Ibis papillosa in the subgenus Geronticus; but it appears to me unadvisable to remove
it from the genus Ibis, where I have accordingly placed it. The Ibises inhabit the Pakearctic,
Oriental, Australian, and Ethiopian Regions, only one species being met with in the Western
Palsearctic Region. They frequent damp and marshy as well as dry and even arid localities,
walk with ease, and in wet places wade into shallow water. They feed on worms, reptiles, and
insects ; and some species are said to devour offal. They breed in the clefts of rocks or on trees,
and deposit bluish-white eggs either unmarked or spotted with rufous.

The type of the genus is Ibis cethiopica (Lath.), the Sacred Ibis of the ancient Egyptians, a
species which cannot fairly be included in the avifauna of the Western Palsearctic Region,
though a specimen has been obtained near Damietta by Mons. Filliponi (Gurney, Rambles of a
Naturalist, p. 298). As this species has, therefore, not been included, I give the generic characters
of the Red-cheeked Ibis (Ibis comata), which has the bill elongated, gradually curved towards
the tip, rather broad at the base, the upper mandible grooved along the sides; nostrils basal,
elongated ; head to behind the ear and the nape and the upper part of the neck bare ; feathers
on the upper neck elongated and narrow ; wings long and full, the second quill longest ; tail
rather long, rounded ; legs long, stout, the tibia bare on the lower half; tarsus covered with
roundish scales; toes stout, strong; claws stout, curved, rather blunt.

l 3S

328

408

. 'ulemans lith

Hanha.rL irav

REDCHEEKED IBIS.

IBIS COMATA.

329

IBIS COMATA.

(RED-CHEEKED IBIS.)

Ibis comata, Ehr. in Mus. Berol.

Geronticus, spec. nov. ex Aegypto, Wagler, Isis, 1832, p. 1232.

"Ibis comata, Ehr.," Riipp. Syst. Uebers. taf. 45 (1845).

Geronticus comatus (Ehr.), Riipp. op. cit. p. 122 (1845).

Comatibus, Reichenb. (Ibis comata, Ehr.), Av. Syst. Nat. p. 26 (1849).

Ibis calvus, Levaill. jun. Expl. Scient. de lAlgerie, pi. 12 (1850, nee Bodd.).

Figurce notabiles.
Riipp. /. c. ; Levaill. jun. I. c.

Ad. capite, gula et gutture medio nudis incarnato-rubris, pileo nigro : cervicis et colli plumis elongatis,
acuminatis, nigris viridi nitentibus : corpore supra et subtus, alis et cauda nigricantibus, seneo-viridi
nitentibus : tectricibus alarum minoribus chalybeo-purpureis : rostro et pedibus saturate incarnatis :
iride rufescenti-aurantiacsL

Adult Male (Euphrates, 20th February) . Plumage generally dark metallic coppery green or bottle-green ;
crown black ; head and throat bare ; feathers on the neck elongated, pointed, and forming a sort of ruff;
lesser wing-coverts rich coppery purple ; bill, naked throat, and head dull blood-red ; legs dull blood-
red; iris fiery red. Total length about 24 inches, culmen 5 - 2, wing 16 - 7, tail 8 - 5, tarsus 30. The
tail-feathers of this species are rather peculiarly formed, having the tips abruptly acuminate.

Young (fide v. Heugl. Vog. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 1144). Much duller in coloration of plumage; the elongated
feathers on the hind neck are wanting ; and the head and neck are feathered with dirty-white feathers
tinged with dull rust-colour, and here and there marked with brown.

The range of this peculiar Ibis is somewhat restricted ; for it inhabits only North Africa, ranging
into the Euphrates valley in Asia Minor, where it was lately discovered by Mr. C. G. Danford.
This gentleman sends me the following notes : — " It was while staying at Biledjik that we made
the unexpected acquaintance of the Red-cheeked Ibis, identifying with it a mysterious migratory
bird, of which many diverse descriptions had been given us, and which came every one knew
when, but no one could tell whence.

" Biledjik is picturesquely built on the high chalky slopes of the Mesopotamian side of the
Euphrates, its castle standing on a long detached rock near the river-side at the north end of the
city. It was the ledges of this rock, and those of some cliffs above the other extremity of the
town, which were said to be the roosting- and breeding-places of the birds in question; and
abundant traces vouched for the truth of the statement.

" Ibis comata is a very early and regular migrant — the arrival of the first pair having taken
place in February, on the day predicted by the natives. Two days after, a larger body made their

330

appearance, and we betook ourselves to the castle, where, from a vantage tower, we made them
out to be Ibises of a strange species. As evening came on still more arrived, and from our
house-top Ave watched them circling round the town in bands of from five to fifteen. At each
gyration they dropped lower, and at last came close over our heads, flying close behind each
other in single file. They could easily have been shot ; but the Kel ainak being a quasi-sacred
bird, it was doubtful how our Turkish host would take its destruction. However, the governor
was troubled with no such scruples ; and presently he and his retinue arrived bearing one of the
desired birds, which he had, with great good friendship, himself killed; and he further connived
at our shooting another next morning. Both specimens were males, and had been feeding on
beetles and small lizards, which food is plentiful enough in the immediate neighbourhood.
They certainly do not seem to stray far ; and the natives assert that there are no other colonies
on the river, either north or south of Biledjik. The former part of the statement is probably
true, while the latter appears very doubtful."

No observer, except Mr. Danford, appears to have noticed this bird in Asia Minor; nor
was it observed by Canon Tristram in Palestine; but it is found in North-east Africa, and
was first discovered by Hemprich and Ehrenberg near the town of Qonfudah, in Arabia, in
lat. 19° N. Von Heuglin states that he met with it on the elevated plateau of Wogara, and
obtained both adult and immature birds from Hamedo. He adds that " Bonaparte gives, in
error, Nubia as a locality for this bird, also Schlegel the Upper White Nile, and Brehm localities
south of 12° N. lat.'.' Mr. Blanford, who saw this bird in Abyssinia, says (Geol. & Zool. of
Abyss, p. 436) that he " only met with it on the highlands, once near Senafe, and again in a large
flock near Antalo." On the second occasion he received two specimens ; and it appears, he adds,
to be by no means common in the region traversed by him. The Bed-cheeked Ibis is also found
in the Atlas range. Canon Tristram writes (Ibis, 1860, p. 78) : — " This extraordinary bird I never
saw during my second sojourn in Algeria ; but on my first visit to the Sahara in the spring of
1856 I obtained two specimens in the rocky ridges beyond Bou Guizoun, on the road to El
Aghouat. Unlike the rest of its family, it resorts only to the most arid and desolate mountain
ranges, where it consorts with the Raven and the Falcon. Its food, as I ascertained, consists of
lizards and serpents ; but it is doubtless ignorant of the flavour of tailless batrachians. It breeds
in inaccessible holes of the precipices, which I was unable to reach, though I saw the birds going
in and out. Captain Dastugue, of the French ' Genie,' showed me a coarse egg of a deep blue-
colour, almost the size of that of the common Heron, which he believed to be the egg of this
bird. It does not appear to be gregarious. The bright red legs and feet of a fresh-killed
specimen are peculiarly coarse and rough in the scales, adapted evidently for rocks and sand,
rather than mud and water. The bare portion of the head and neck is, as well as the bill, of a
brilliant crimson."

Loche states that this Ibis was obtained at Bone ; but he gives no particulars respecting its
habits. I possess two eggs from the collection of this gentleman, which are pale bluish white,
very faintly marked with pale rufous, and measure 2ff by Iff and 2jf by Iff inch.

In Western Africa the present species is replaced by Ibis olivacea, Dubus (Bull. Acad.
Brux. 1837, p. 103), of which I have not been able to examine a specimen, but which appears to
be quite distinct from the present species ; for it has the head, neck, and breast brownish yellow,

331

and the abdomen brown. In South Africa there is another allied species, Ibis calva, Bodd. ;
and in Madagascar there are two other species — Ibis bernieri, Bp., and Ibis cristata, Gm.

The present species differs widely in its habits from most of its allies, and, strange to say,
instead of frequenting only marshy localities or the more fruitful lowlands, as one would at first
imagine from its general appearance, it inhabits the rocky sterile mountain range of the Atlas,
and is found, it seems, in the most arid portions of that range, where it nests in crevices of the
rocks. In North-east Africa, however, according to Von Heuglin (Orn. N.O.-Afr. ii. p. 1145), it
is found in small flocks on elevated moors, meadows, pastures, and near mountain-streams, and
appears to be more shy than Ibis carunculata. It feeds on Orthoptera, beetles, snails, and,
according to Riippell, on reptiles. This explorer remarks on the silent disposition of this Ibis ;
and Von Heuglin, also, says that he has no recollection of ever hearing its cry.

The specimen figured is one obtained by Mr. C. G. Danford in the Euphrates valley, which
he has kindly given to me.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser,
a. Biledjik, Euphrates valley, February 1879 (C. G. D.).

E Mus. C. G. Danford.
a. Biledjik, February 1879 (C. G. D.).

332

33?>

Genus PLEGADIS.

Numenius apud Brisson, Orn. v. p. 326 (1760).
Tantalus'apud Linnseus, Syst. Nat. i. p. 241 (1766).
Ardea apud Scopoli, Ann. I. Hist. Nat. p. 87 (1769).
Ibis apud Temminck, Man. d'Orn. p. 385 (1815).
Plegadis, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 82 (1829).
Tantalides apud Wagler, Isis, 1832, p. 1231.
Falcinellus apud Gray, List of Gen. of B. p. 87 (1841).
Plegadornis apud L. Brehm, Naumannia, 1855, p. 290.
Eudocimus apud Bocage, J. f. Orn. 1876, p. 300.

Although in outward form the birds belonging to the present genus resemble the Curlews not a
little, they are generically widely separated from them, and belong to a distinct division, being
nearly allied to the Storks and Herons. This genus is represented in the Palaearctic, Ethiopian,
Oriental, Australian, Nearctic, and Neotropical Regions, only one species, the type of the genus,
being found in the Western Palsearctic Region.

These birds frequent marshy places, lagoons, the shores of lakes, and the sea-shore where it is
flat and suitable to their habits. They are shy and wary, difficult of approach, especially as they
usually prefer open places. They feed on aquatic insects, Crustacea, reptiles, &c, and frequently
wade in search of food. Their flight is tolerably swift and strong, resembling that of the Curlew ;
but they are, as a rule, silent birds, seldom uttering their note. They breed in large morasses,
usually in almost inaccessible places, and construct a loose nest of flags and aquatic plants, in
which they deposit three dark greenish-blue eggs.

Plegadis falcinellus, the type of the genus, has the bill elongated, curved, tapering towards
the point, the culmen grooved on each side ; nostrils basal, elongated ; space in front of the eye
bare ; head without crest ; wings rather long and full, the first quill rather shorter than the
third, the second and third longest ; tail moderate, even ; legs long, tibia bare on the lower half ;
tarsus scutellate ; toes long, rather slender ; claws moderate, slightly curved.

136

334

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335

PLEGADIS FALCINELLUS.

(GLOSSY IBIS.)

Falcinellus gesneri et aldrovandri, Marsili, Danub. Pannon. v. p. 42, pi. 19 (1726).

Numenius viridis, Briss. Orn. v. p. 326, pi. xxvii. fig. 2 (1760).

Numenius castaneus, Briss. torn. cit. p. 329 (1760).

Numenius mexicanus varius, Briss. torn. cit. p. 333 (1760).

Numenius ibis, Briss. torn. cit. p. 347 (1760).

Tantalus falcinellus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 241 (1766).

Ardea rufa, Scop. Ann. i. Hist. Nat. p. 87. no. 119 (1769).

Numenius igneus, S. G. Gmel. Reise d. Russl. i. p. 166 (1770).

Numenius viridis, S. G. Gmel. torn. cit. p. 167 (1770).

Tantalus castaneus, P. L. S. Miiller, Natursystem, Suppl. p. 112 (1776).

L'Ibis noir, Buff. Nat. Hist. Ois. viii. p. 17 (1781).

Le Courlis vert ou Courlis dJItalie, Buff. torn. cit. p. 29 (1781).

Le Courlis brun, Buff. torn. cit. p. 31 (1781).

Tantalus viridis, Gmel. Syst. Nat. i. p. 648 (1788).

Tantalus igneus, Gmel. torn. cit. p. 649 (1788).

Tantalus niger; Gmel. torn. cit. p. 650 (1788).

Tantalus mexicanus, Gmel. torn. cit. p. 652 (1788).

Numenius falcinellus (L.), Pall. Zoogr. Rosso-As. ii. p. 165 (1811).

Ibis sacra, Temm. Man. d'Orn. p. 385 (1815).

Ibis falcinellus (L.), Vieill. Nouv. Diet. xvi. p. 23 (1817).

Plegadis, Kaup (Ibis falcinellus, L.), Natiirl. Syst. p. 82 (1829).

Ibis castaneus (Mull.), C. L. Brehm, Vdg. Deutschl. p. 606 (1831).

Ibis cufrea, C. L. Brehm, op. cit. p. 1018.

Tantalides falcinellus (L.), Wagl. Isis, 1832, p. 1231.

Ibis erythrorhyncha, Gould, P. Z. S. 1837, p. 127.

Ibis ordi, Bp. Comp. List, p. 49 (1838).

Falcinellus igneus (Gmel.), Gray, List of Gen. of B. p. 87 (1841).

Plegadornis falcinella (L.), L. Brehm, Naumannia, 1855, p. 290.

Plegadornis major, L. Brehm, ut supra.

Plegadornis minor, L. Brehm, ut supra.

Falcinellus bengalensis, Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 158 (1857).

" Falcinellus peregrina, Miill.," Bp. torn. cit. p. 159 (1857).

Falcinellus mexicanus (Gmel.), Bp. ut supra (1857).

Falcinellus erythrorhyncha (Gould), Bp. ut supra (1857).

Falcinellus ordi (Bp.), Coues, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1866, p. 96.

Falcinellus erythrorhynchus (Gould), Gundl. J. f. Orn. 1871, p. 285.

4c2

336

Ibis falcinellus, var. ordi, Coues, B. of N.W. Am. p. 517(1874).
Fudocimus falcinellus (L.), Bocage, J. f. Orn. 1876, p. 300.
Falcinellus rufus (Scop.), Keich. J. f. Orn. 1877, p. 146.
Plegadis falcinellus (L.), Salvin, Ibis, 1878, p. 112.

Ibis falcinelle, French ; Morito, Garza diabolo, Spanish ; Mignattaio, Italian ; Velleran,
Maltese; Madzet el Md, Arabic; Maiza, Moorish; brauner Sichler, Nimmersatt,
German ; Sort-Ibis, Danish and Norwegian ; Svart-Ibis, Swedish ; Karavaika, Kara-
waschka, Russian.

Figure notabiles.

DAubenton, PL Enl. 819; Werner, Atlas, Gralles, pi. 5; Kjserb. Orn. Dan. taf. 33a;
Fritsch, Vog. Eur. taf. 43. fig. 3 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl. taf. 219 ; Sundevall, Svensk.
Fogl. pi. 77. fig. 3; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 311; id. B. of G. Brit. iv. pi. 47; id. B. of
Austr. vi. pi. 47; Schlegel, Vog. Nederl. pis. 201, 202; Eoux, Orn. Prov. pi. 309;
Audub. B. of Am. pi. 358.

Ad. fronte et facie frontali viridi-nigris metallico niteutibus : capite reliquo, collo, regione interscapular^
tectricibus alarum minoribus et corpore toto subtus lsete aeneo-rufescentibus, dorso purpureo-nitente :
corpore reliquo supra, alis et Cauda nigricantibus viridi et purpureo nitentibus : subcaudalibus purpureo-
nigris : facie frontali nuda plumbeo-cinerea : rostro et pedibus nigricanti-cinereis : iride fusca.

Juv. capite, collo, dorso et corpore subtus haud rufis sed saturate fuscis, corpore supra minus nitente, capite et
collo superiore albo striatis.

Adult Female (Barcelona, 10th May) . Forehead and fore part of the head greenish black, with a metallic
gloss ; rest of the head, neck, fore part of the back, edge of the shoulder, and underparts generally rich
deep copper-brown; back slightly glossed with purple and violet-purple; rest of the upper parts,
including the rump, upper tail-coverts, wings, and tail blackish, richly glossed with purple and green ;
under tail-coverts rich purplish black ; bill dark slaty blackish, bare portion at the base slate-grey ; iris
brown ; legs blackish grey. Total length about 22 inches, culmen 5*2, wing 1T5, tail 4 - 7, tarsus 4"0.

Adult Male. Resembles the female, but is rather larger in size.

Young (Madagascar) . Differs from the adult in having all the reddish brown in the plumage replaced by
dark dull brown ; and the upper parts are much less glossed, the head and upper neck are finely striped
with white, and the bill and legs are much paler than in the adult.

Young in down (Sarepta) . Covered with rather short, close, black down, with a broad white band over the
crown; legs and bill yellowish, the latter black at the base and tip, and with a central black band.

The range of the present species extends over Central and Southern Europe, Africa as far south
as the Zambesi, Asia as far east as Cochin China, and southward to Australia ; and it is also
found in the Southern States .of North America, southward at least as far as Mexico.

In Great Britain it only occurs as a rare straggler at irregular intervals, though it would
appear that formerly it was more numerous than it now is. There does not seem to be any
thing to show that it has bred with us ; and it has usually been obtained on the autumn passage.
Yarrell cites instances of its occurrence in Cornwall, Devonshire, Surrey, Berkshire, Kent,

337

Sussex, and Shropshire, &c. ; but it appears to have been more common on the east coast than
elsewhere.

According to Mr. Lubbock the Glossy Ibis was often enough seen in Norfolk in the latter
years of the seventeenth century, and was well known under the name of Black Curlew, but
since about the year 1800 it is only known as a rare and uncertain straggler. Mr. Stevenson
(B. of Norf. ii. p. 191) cites the following instances of its occurrence there, viz.: — One shot in
the winter of 1818 near Lynn, and two killed at Hockwold fen (Shepjpard and Whitear); two
shot and four more seen at the mouth of the Norwich river in September 1824 [Paget); two
killed near Yarmouth in January 1825 (Lombe) ; one near Cromer 1829 (Hunt) ; one near Norwich
in October 1833 (Lombe), one shot on Blundeston Marsh, near Lowestoft, on the 27th May
1850 (J. H. Gurney); one seen near Yarmouth in January, and one shot at Stalham on the
13th September 1868. Mr. Cordeaux (B. of Humb. Distr. p. 107) says that one was shot in the
autumn of 1869 near the mouth of the Trent, and one at Filey in 1863 ; and Selby refers to one,
in his possession, as having been killed on the banks of the Coquet.

In Scotland it is rarer than in England; but it has been met with as far north as Shetland.
Mr. Robert Gray writes (B. of W. of Scotl. p. 286) as follows : — -" This straggler has never, to
my knowledge, been met with in the west of Scotland, except in a single instance mentioned by
Macgillivray — a specimen having, according to that writer, who saw it, been shot in Ayrshire.
No date is given.

" On the east coast one of these birds was shot in September 1842, in Fifeshire, by
Mr. Hepburn, who communicated the circumstance to Mr. Yarrell. A third specimen appears
to have been obtained near Banchory, in Kincardineshire, on the property of Sir James Burnett,
Bart., about the year 1844. This bird, as I have been informed by Mr. Angus, was presented
to the late Professor Macgillivray, in whose work, however, no particulars are given, although
the simple circumstance is noticed." According to Dr. Saxby one was shot at Stove, in Unst,
in October 1862 ; and Mr. Dunn informed Mr. R. Gray that one was shot near Kirkwall in
October 1857.

In Ireland, according to Thompson, it appears as a rare straggler late in the autumn or early
in the winter.

It has not been met with in Greenland ; but, curiously enough, five are said to have been
obtained in Iceland, one of which, Mr. J. Collin says, is now in the Copenhagen Museum.
Mr. H. C. Miiller states that it has once occurred in the Fseroes; and my friend Mr. Collett
says that it has on several occasions been met with in Norway. One was shot near Bodo in
67° N. lat. in 1835; and subsequently one was obtained at Imsjo, in Ringebo; one was seen by
Collett himself at Drammen in July 1862 ; two were shot in 1848 at Bergen, and one near
Christiania in the autumn of 1839. One was seen by Baron E. Wedel-Jarlsberg near Fornebo.
Nilsson says that it occurs as a straggler in Southern and Central Sweden, in Skaue, on Gottland,
and in Sbdermanland. It has once occurred in Finland, a single specimen having been obtained

o

onKuusto, near Abo, in the summer a year or two prior to 1830. ■ It is not included by Sabanaeff
as occurring in Central Russia ; but Artzibascheff says that is very common near Astrachan and
on the lakes south of the Sarpa. It is of accidental occurrence in Poland ; and Borggreve says
that it is a rare straggler to North Germany. Boeck records it once from Prussia, Schafer from

Q

38

the Moselle, Naumann once from Anhalt ; and Gloger says that it is not rare in Eastern Silesia.
According to Collin it has on several occasions been met with in Denmark. Teilmann saw it on
Fano in September 1826. It has been killed at Frederiksstad ; one was shot near Neuhausen,
and one at Seedorff Lake, near Segeberg, in October 1825.

It is a very rare and accidental straggler to Holland, Belgium, and the north of France ; but
it is frequently numerous in the south of France, and, according to Baron J. W. von Miiller, a
few breed in the Camargue. Professor Barboza du Bocage, in his list of the birds of Portugal,
says that it is not rare in Alemtejo ; and in Spain it is numerous in many localities, and breeds
in the marismas near Seville. I met with it near Barcelona and Valencia ; and Colonel Irby
observed it near Gibraltar in April and May, and says that it breeds in the Soto Torezo, near
Vejer, and in the marismas of the Guadalquivir. Lord Lilford, in a letter to me respecting this
bird, says : — " It is by no means uncommon in the marismas of the Guadalquivir in April and
May. We were assured that it breeds in that district, but did not meet with a nest, nor have I
ever received the eggs of this species from Spain."

Mr. Alexander von Homeyer met with the Glossy Ibis in flocks on the Balearic Isles from
the 15th to the 25th of May, and adds that a Frenchman saw them as early as the middle of
April.

In Italy it occurs regularly on passage, remaining about a month in the spring; and,
according to Mr. A. B. Brooke, it is met with in Sardinia not uncommonly during the winter.
Mr. C. A. Wright remarks that it is a pretty regular visitor to Malta in spring and autumn in
small flocks, and sometimes a solitary one is seen accompanying a flock of Lesser Egrets.

In Southern Germany it is not uncommon in many localities, becoming quite common
towards the south-east. Dr. Fritsch says (J. f. O 1871, p. 390) that it has several times been
killed in Bohemia ; the late Mr. E. Seidensacher informed me that it has occurred near Cilli,
in Styria; and Messrs. Danford and Harvie-Brown write (Ibis, 1875, p. 426), in Transylvania
" solitary birds are not uncommonly met with during the spring migration. We saw one which
had been killed last year at Gorgeny ; and another was sent to us from Hatzeg. It also occurs
on the Strell and Alt rivers." In Hungary and on the Lower Danube it breeds commonly, and
is numerous in Turkey in the summer, as also in Southern Russia.

In Greece it is a migrant, arriving late in March and early in April, and after remaining a
few weeks goes further north ; and Lord Lilford informs me that it occurs frequently in Corfu
and Epirus. I find but meagre details respecting its occurrence in Asia Minor; and Canon
Tristram says that it is very rare in Palestine. According to Captain Shelley (B. of Egypt,
p. 262), " the Glossy Ibis ranges throughout Egypt and Nubia, where it remains during the
year, but is not very abundant. I only met with it on one occasion, near El Kab, in April,
where I saw three feeding together in a small pool, and procured two of them." Biippell also
says that it is a resident in North-east Africa ; and Von Heuglin writes (Orn. N.O.-Afr. p. 1134)
that he met with them in pairs and flocks in spring, and also in the autumn and winter from
August on passage, in Egypt, Nubia, Kordofan, Sennaar, and Abyssinia. He believes that those
which occur in the summer are not breeding birds. It does not appear to be common in North-
western Africa. Canon Tristram met with it at Tuggurt, and Mr. Salvin at Zana ; and it occurs,
Favier says, near Tangier on passage, passing further south to winter, some few remaining to

339

breed in Morocco. Colonel Irby says that he saw large flocks at the lakes of Ras-Dowra late in
April, and adds that they were very wary.

It is found in Africa nearly as far south as the Cape colony. Verreaux records it from the
Gaboon ; there are specimens from Senegal in the Leiden Museum ; it is recorded from Casa-
manse by Beaudouin, and has occurred in Sierra Leone. Hartlaub cites it as a South-African
species ; but Layard never met with it in the Cape colony. Ayres obtained it in Natal ; Peters
records it from Mozambique ; I have a specimen from Madagascar ; and Dr. Kirk, who records
it from the Zambesi, says (Ibis, 1864, p. 334) that it is "rather common, but a shy bird, difficult
to approach; its cry is loud and harsh. It feeds in marshes and near rivers,. but perches on the
high trees when disturbed."

In Asia the Glossy Ibis is widely distributed. It occurs on the Caspian in considerable
numbers; and Mr. A. O. Hume writes (Stray Feathers, i. p. 257) as follows: — "The Glossy Ibis
occurred in huge flocks in and about many of the larger inland lakes of Upper Sindh ; but I
never met with it in Lower Sindh. We got it in every stage, from the quite young bird, with a
bill of about 3'75, and without a vestige of ruddy tint below or of purple reflections above, to
the old bird in full breeding-plumage, with a bill over 5 - 5 in length." According to Dr. Jerdon
it is very numerous and widely distributed in India during the cold season ; and it even breeds as
far south as Ceylon, where Captain Legge found it nesting near Tissa Maha Rama in March 1872.
It is stated to occur in Cochin China, but has not been met with in Siberia, China, or Japan.

In the Leiden Museum are specimens from Java, Borneo, Northern Celebes, and Macassar ;
and Rosenberg records it from New Guinea. Mr. Gould says (B. of Austr. ii. p. 286), it " has
been found in every part of the vast continent of Australia at present known to us. I observed
examples in the collection formed by Bynoe on the north coast ; and I have seen others obtained
in New South Wales and South Australia."

In America the range of this species is not well defined. Speaking of its occurrence in
the United States, Dr. Coues states (B. of N.W. Am. p. 517) : — " In 1817 a specimen was taken
in New Jersey, and announced by Mr. Ord under the name of Tantalus mexicanus. Since that
time it has been found at irregular intervals along our coast, chiefly in the southern and middle
districts, but occasionally as far north as Massachusetts, where, however, its occurrence must be
considered as accidental." Mr. C. Hart Merriam (Rev. B. Connect, p. 110) says that Linsley
obtained five specimens at Stratford, Connecticut, and there is an example in the Museum of the
Wesleyan University at Middletown, Connecticut, taken near there by Dr. Barrat about the year
1855. I obtained it in Texas, and found it numerous near Matamoras, in Mexico, in August,
appearing earlier than Ibis alba. How far southward it occurs it is difficult to say, as there are
two allied species — Plegadis guarauna (L.), which differs in having a white band, enclosing the
eye, passing around the base of the bill, the latter being apparently dark red, and Plegadis
ridgwayi (Allen), which differs in having the underparts dark, not rufous, the back and edge of
the wings also lacking the rufous coloration ; the head and upper neck are more rufous than
in Plegadis falcinellus, there being no dark colour on the forehead and face, and the bill appears,
from the dried skin, to be red. The former of these two species, both of which have been
confused with Plegadis falcinellus, ranges from the Columbia river to Chili and Buenos Ayres;
and the latter inhabits Peru.

340

6

The Glossy Ibis is found in Cuba, where Gundlach has obtained it on more than one
occasion.

In habits the present species reminds one not a little of the Curlew ; but instead of being
noisy like that species, I have generally found it very silent, and, excepting when suddenly
flushed, when I have heard it utter a harsh note, I never recollect to have heard its voice. I
have only seen it near shallow lagoons, where it waded about in search of its food ; and the
country being open, I found it difficult of approach. When I was at Matamoras, in Mexico, I
frequently saw Glossy Ibises at the lagoon near the town and on the banks of the Rio Grande,
and shot a good many. They were usually in company with White Ibises (Eudocimus albus),
and were exceedingly shy ; but by hiding in the bushes between the end of the lagoon and the
river I had no difficulty in shooting them as they passed to and from the lagoon. I used
frequently to eat them, and found them excellent.

The Glossy Ibis breeds numerously in South-eastern Europe, especially in the large swampy
districts in Hungary. Unfortunately, I was in that part of Europe in the early spring, and had
to return before the present species commenced breeding, and am therefore unable to give a
description of its breeding-habits from personal observation, but was informed that it breeds in
the large morasses, in places difficult of access, and the nest, which is carelessly constructed of
dried flags and leaves of aquatic plants, is placed on the bent- down large aquatic plants and on
partially dry places in the marsh. The eggs, usually three in number, are uniform greenish
blue in colour, much darker in shade than the Heron's eggs; and those in my collection, from
the Save, vary in size from lf§ by lj^ to 2 inches by 1^ inch, some being nearly oval in shape,
whereas others taper much towards one end.

The food of the present species consists of aquatic insects, worms, Crustacea, small frogs,
&c. &c. It is said by some authors to feed on carrion ; but this is doubtless an error.

The generic appellation which of late has been chiefly used for the present species is
Falcinellus, said to have been given by Bechstein in 1803, the type being the present species;
but this is certainly an error, for Bechstein speaks of the bird only as Numenius falcinellus,
never using the latter title generically. The next generic title, in order of date, is Plegadis of
Kaup (I. c), which is the one that will stand.

Some authors cite Falcinellus as given by Cuvier in 1829; but this also is an error, for
Cuvier (Regne Animal, 2nd ed. i. p. 527), who makes a genus under the name of " Falcinelle,"
the type being Limicola platyrhyncha, fails to give it any Latin title.

The specimens figured are an adult female and a young bird in down, with an immature
bird in the background, all being those above described.

In the preparation of the above article I have examined the following specimens : —

E Mus. H. E. Dresser.

a, d ad. Seville, Spain, May 1868 {Hoivard Saunders). b, $ ad. Barcelona, Spain, May 10th, 1866
(H.E.D.). c, 2 • Central Volga, May 1877 (Schliiler) . d,e,juv. Madagascar (Frank), f, pull. Sarepta
(Dr. Stader).

341

Family PHCENICOPTEKID^l.

Genus PHCENICOPTERUS.
Phoenicopterus, Brisson, Orn. vi. p. 532 (1760).

By many authors the family Phcenicopteridse has been placed amongst the Anseres ; and the
Flamingos are certainly, in many respects, allied to the Geese ; but it appears to me that they
should be placed amongst the Herodii, between which and the Anseres they form, as it were, a
connecting link. This genus is represented in the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental, Nearctic, and
Neotropical Regions, one species inhabiting the Western Palsearctic Region, its range being
given in the following article.

To some extent these birds resemble the Herons and Spoonbills in habits. They are essen-
tially gregarious, being found at all seasons in flocks. They frequent lakes, lagoons, and the flat
open shores of the sea. They feed on aquatic insects, crustaceans, worms, and vegetable matter,
and wade far out in search of food. They fly with tolerable ease, reminding one somewhat of
the Swan, but rise on the wing with some difficulty. Although they do not take to the water
readily, yet they can and do swim with tolerable ease when out of their depth. Their cry
resembles that of the Wild Goose. They place their eggs, usually two in number, on the
ground, not making any regular nest, but only scraping the mud together so as to form a sort
of hillock. The eggs are white in colour, about the size and shape of those of the Wild Goose ;
but the surface is chalky.

Phcenicopterus roseus, the type of the genus, has the bill longer than the head, membranous
at the base, curved suddenly downwards from the middle, both mandibles edged with fine trans-
verse lamellae, the lower mandible much larger and higher than the upper one ; nostrils near the
middle of the bill, longitudinal, placed in a depression, covered with a membrane ; the space in
front of the eye, and at the base of the bill, including the chin, bare ; wings moderately long,
the first and second quills nearly equal and longest, the inner secondaries longer than the
primaries ; tail short, even ; legs very long and slender, the chief portion of the tibia bare ;
tarsus anteriorly and posteriorly scutellate ; toes moderately long, united by a membrane ; claws
short, stout, and blunt ; neck very long and slender.

*37

342

410

&

:. Mil emails utii

HaiJiAi: luid

F L AMINCO.

PH/ENICOPTERUS ROSEUS.

343

PHCENICOPTEKUS KOSEUS.

(FLAMINGO.)

Phoenicopterus, Briss. Orn. vi. p. 532 (1760).
Phoenicopterus ruber, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 230 (1766, partim).
Le Flammant, Buff. Hist. Nat. Ois. viii. p. 475 (1781).
Phcenicopterus roseus, Pall. Zoogr. Rosso-As. ii. p. 207 (1811).
Phoenicopterus antiquorum, Temm. Man. d'Orn. ii. p. 587 (1820).
Phcenicopterus major, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 603 (1831).
Phoenicopterus ruber (L.), Sykes, Proc. Zool. 1832, p. 159.
Phcenicopterus europceus, Swains. Classif. of B. ii. p. 364 (1837).
Phoenicopterus platyrhynchos, L. Brehm, Naumannia, 1855, p. 290.
Phoenicopterus minor, C. Brehm, ut supra.

Phoenicopterus erythrceus, Verr. Rev. et Mag. Zool. 1855, p. 221.
Phcenicopterus blythi, Bp. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 146 (1857).
Phcenicopterus antiquus, Blyth, fide G. R. Gray, Ibis, 1869, p. 442.
Phoenicopterus andersoni, Brooks, Proc. As. Soc. Beng. 1875, p. 17.

Flammant, French ; Flamenco, Spanish ; Fenicottero, Italian ; Fiamingu, Maltese ; Nihof
Moorish; rosenfarbiger Flaming, German; Krasnbi-Gouss, Russian.

Figurce notabiles.

DAubenton, PL Enl. 63 ; Frisch, Vog. Deutschl. Suppl. taf. 152 ; Naumann, Vog. Deutschl.
taf. 233 ; Gould, B. of Eur. pi. 287 ; Roux, Orn. Prov. pis. 339, 340.

c? ad. albus, vix rosaceo tinctus : remigibus nigris : tectricibus alarum supra et subtus cum axillaribus intense
roseis : pedibus, rostro ad basin et regione oculari nuda pallide rosaceis, rostro ad apicem nigro : iride
flava.

Juv. sordide albus : capite et collo rufescente cervino tinctis : dorso et tectricibus alarum sordide fusco notatis,
tectricibus majoribus fere omnino fuscis : pedibus plumbescentibus : rostro ad basin sordidiore.

Adult Male (Sardinia). Entire plumage, except the wings, rosy white, the tail rather more of a rosy red
tinge ; quills black ; upper and under wing-coverts and axillaries rich deep rose-pink with a vermilion
tinge; legs, base of the bill, and bare space round the eye flesh-pink; terminal portion of the bill
jet-black; iris pale yellow. Total length about 44 inches, culmen 5'65, wing 16 - 7, tail 7 - 0, tarsus 12-4,
bare portion of the tibia 8'2.

Adult Female (Sardinia) . Resembles the male, but is rather smaller in size.

Young (Etawah) . Head, neck, back, and underparts white slightly tinged with rusty buff, especially on
the upper neck; back marked with dull ashy brown; wing-coverts marked with dark brown, the

5o2

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larger coverts almost entirely brown; axillaries pale pink; base of the bill dull pinkish; legs dull
plumbeous.

Young in down (Kirghis steppe). Covered with close down, in texture like that on a young Swan; entire
plumage white, the upper parts slightly tinged with dusty grey.

This curious bird inhabits Southern Europe, the entire continent of Africa down to the Cape
colony, and Asia as far east as into India ; but it very rarely ranges even into Central Europe.

It has not been met with in Great Britain or north of the Baltic ; but it has occurred, as a
rare straggler, in Germany. Mr. A. von Homeyer states (J. f. O. 1870, p. 230) that an adult
bird was caught alive at Treptow a. Rega, in Pomerania, in September 1869 ; and, according to
Naumann, one was shot at Alzey, on the Altrhein, on the 10th of April, 1728 ; and in the hot
summer of 1811 a flock of twenty-seven were seen on the Rhine, first at Kehl and then at
Gambsheim, of which five females and a male were shot. In the same season a number of these
birds were seen passing over Bamberg on the 25th June, and two were noticed from the 14th to
the 16th of July at Schierstein, and a few days later at Idstein. All these birds were immature
examples in the plumage of the second year.

It does not appear to have occurred in Holland or Belgium ; but it is tolerably common in
the south of France, and is said to inhabit the marshes on the coast of the Mediterranean from
Hyeres to Perpignan, and in considerable numbers the marshes of the Camargue and Aigue-
Mortes. M. Adrien Lacroix says that it is becoming very rare in the French Pyrenees, though
about twenty years ago it used to be often seen in Herault. It still nests, he adds, in the
Pyrenees Orientales.

In Spain and Portugal the Flamingo is common in suitable localities, and certainly breeds
there. Mr. Howard Saunders, who has endeavoured to discover its breeding-haunts, writes
(Ibis, 1871, p. 394) : — " My principal aim during the past season has been the discovery of the
breeding-places of this bird ; but, owing to the drought, all the efforts of my cazadores have been
unavailing; and I do not think any have nested within thirty miles of Seville for several years.
Failing personal observation, I translate part of a letter from Manuel, in reply to a severe cross-
examination, the composition of which must have caused the notary no small amusement ; for
my worthy friend is unacquainted with the arts of reading and writing, though quick enough at
his arithmetic : —

" ' The Flamingo always makes its nest in the flattest part of the marsh, in places where
there is from three to four inches of water. The nest, which rises to about half a yard above
the surface of the water, is made of mud, like that of a Swallow ; its shape is almost cylindrical,
but somewhat wider at the base. There is a slight concavity for the eggs, oval in shape, like
the shape of the inside of a hat.

" ' When the bird is sitting, she has her legs stretched out behind, hanging in the air (that
is to say, unsupported), like the arms of a man when he puts them behind his back, and throws
his shoulders forward. The complement of eggs is five ; and the birds, when once frightened
from their nests, do not return. To raise itself, the bird " scrambles " with its feet on the side of
the nest till it lifts its body clear, and then it takes wing.'

"" This account tallies with the oral information I have already collected, and of which 1

345

gave a resume on exhibiting some of the eggs at a meeting of the Zoological Society ; but a
well-known ornithologist pooh-poohed the idea of such a position, preferring the notion of the
bird's sitting with its legs doubled underneath it — because, forsooth, to his mind, the latter
position would be more comfortable. Eggs taken in 1865, which I obtained through the kind-
ness of some Spanish friends, are larger than, but otherwise similar to, those of a Gannet (but on
scraping away the chalky surface, the shell is greenish), and in shape more pointed at one end.

" An excellent observer at Malaga assured me that, amongst the many Flamingoes he had
seen from the salt lake of Fuentepiedra, much frequented by those birds, but where they do not
breed, he had occasionally observed a small one red all over; and on sending me the skin of a
very rosy one, he observed, ' This bird is smallish and very rosy, but it is not the small species of
which I spoke to you, that being far more orange-red (rojo anaranjado), whereas this is pink.'
I therefore fully expect to be able to exhibit some day a skin of Phoenicopterus erythrceus, the
statement respecting this smaller ruddy Flamingo having been fully confirmed on my visits to the
lake in question by a native hunter of its vicinity.

"Last year (1870) I again visited Spain, with the express object of trying some other
localities where it was possible this bird might breed, having given instructions to my corre-
spondents in the south to telegraph the moment they found a nest in their part of the country.
I visited the unwholesome delta of the Ebro, nothing there ; then to Majorca, nothing there
either ; but on my return I was assured that this bird sometimes nested in the island of Iviza.
I sent a man down to some of the lakes in La Mancha with no better result, whilst I myself set
out to explore the lake of Gallocanta, in Aragon, a very awkward place to get at. Arrived
there, I could find no signs of a Flamingo, and all the herdsmen and inhabitants of that dreary
basin agreed that the ' Gorrones,' as they called them, though abundant in winter, never had
nested there. I could put my finger on half a dozen places in the south where they really have
nested ; but until we have had several ' anos de agua.,' I fear all further search is useless. This
year, too (1871), I have no news." Lord Lilford writes to me as follows: — "I have been in
Iviza this spring, and was assured that the Flamingo, though it visits that island, and Formentera
in winter, sometimes in great numbers, has never been known to breed there."

According to Colonel Irby (Orn. Str. Gibr. p. 193), "Flights of Flamingoes are frequently
seen passing near Gibraltar as early as the 4th of February and as late as the 1st of May ; and
they again appear in September, when immature birds are met with. I have seen flocks of
thousands in the Marisma near the Isla Menor, and, by the aid of a stalking-horse, managed to
shoot five at a shot. Usually they are extremely wild and shy, except during actual passage,
when they alight to rest at the mouths of rivers. The note is not unlike that of the Grey-Lag
Goose (Anser cinereus) ; and more than once at night I have mistaken the sound for that of
these Geese."

According to Mr. A. von Homeyer the Flamingo is a winter visitant to the Balearic Islands,
and he was informed that it breeds there. He once observed a pair at the Albufera, but could
not ascertain if they were nesting there. Occasionally the Flamingo straggles into Savoy ; and
Bailly says that he obtained an adult example near Yenne, on the banks of the Rhone. In Italy
it has been known to straggle as far as Piedmont ; and several have been killed in Lombardy,
Venice, and the provinces to the southward ; but in Sardinia it is numerous. Salvadori writes

346

(J. f. O. 1865, p. 318): — "The number of Flamingoes which inhabit the lakes of Cagliari is
extremely large ; but from January till April 1863 they were not so abundant as usual, and it
was with difficulty that I could obtain three specimens. They arrive about the middle of August,
and take their departure in March or the first days of April. Where do they go to breed 1 If
they obeyed the ordinary laws of migration, it seems they would have to go to more northern
countries ; however, the number of those which breed at the mouth of the river Rhone is said to
be very small, whilst the number of those which leave Sardinia is very large. Besides, when
they arrive in August, they never come from the north, but from a direction which makes one
believe that they come from Africa. This is also confirmed by La Marmora in his ' Voyage to
Sardinia,' and before him by Cetti." According to Mr. A. B. Brooke (Ibis, 1873, p. 34), " Large
flocks of Flamingoes are to be seen all the winter through o